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industrial  Survey  of 

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Vocational  Section 


GARMENT  MAKING 
INDUSTRIES 


j  |I  i    Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce 

II    i  JANUARY,  NINETEEN  SEVENTEEN 

f!     :  CINCINNATI,  OHIO 


GIFT   OF 


I    Industrial  Survey    I 

I    °!  CI N  CI N  NATI    1 

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I 

Vocational  Section 


I     GARMENT  MAKING 

I  INDUSTRIES 

I 


Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce 

CINCINNATI,  OHIO 


\A 


SURVEY    COMMITTEE 

OF    THE 

CINCINNATI  CHAMBER  of  COMMERCE 

CHARLES  W.  LEWIS,  Chairman. 
WM.  B.  CARPENTER, 
DALE  G.  EBERSOLE, 
FRANK  P.  GOODWIN, 
H.  S.  LEYMAN, 
J.  E.  McCLAIN, 
SIDNEY  E.  PRITZ, 
WALTER  S.  SCHMIDT, 
ROBERT  T.  SKINNER. 


DIRECTOR    OF    SURVEY 

CHARLES  R.  HEBBLE, 

Manager  Civic  and  Industrial  Department  of  the  Cincinnati 

Chamber  of  Commerce. 


395058 


THIS  report  was  prepared  by 
Miss  Cleo  Murtland  of  the 
National   Society   for    the   Pro- 
motion of  Industrial  Education. 

It  was  submitted  to  the  Board 
of  Directors  of  the  Cincinnati 
Chamber  of  Commerce  by  the 
Survey  Committee  on  December 
11,  1916,  and  on  that  day  form- 
ally approved  by  the  Board. 


*  ••  *•••  «.•«•»*  •     •    *    * 

s/*  &\:  -:  ' 

#•     •  «*    »    ***         a    «  »•• 


PREFACE 

THE   trade   of    garment    making    should    be    of 
special  interest,   locally,    because   of  the  pro- 
portionate numbers  of  women  engaged  in  the 
trade  in  Cincinnati ;  and  it  is  perhaps  of  some  general 
interest,  historically,  because  of  its  being  one  of  the 
traditional  women's  occupations,  that  has  increased 
and  not  waned  in  importance.     It  is  gratifying,  there- 
fore, to  know  of  this  definite  effort,  looking  towards 
the  future  progress  and  welfare  of  so  large  a  body  of 
industrial  workers. 

Such  a  descriptive  analysis  as  the  one  following, 
which  shows  the  advantages  and  drawbacks  in  this 
trade,  and  which  sets  forth  the  educational  possibili- 
ties for  development,  ought  to  increase  interest,  and 
ought  to  help  to  dignify  this  necessary,  useful  and 
honorable  trade.  Hence  it  is  a  privilege  to  say  a 
word  by  way  of  preface  to  a  study  which  champions 
the  cause  of  women  workers,  for  whose  progress  too 
few  really  care;  the  public,  in  the  main,  being  inter- 
ested only  in  the  products  of  their  labor. 

I 

Such  efforts  as  this  made  by  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce is  helping  to  develop,  in  Cincinnati's  industrial 
and  educational  life,  a  spirit  of  co-operation.  We 
are  glad,  therefore,  of  the  opportunity  to  further  in 
any  way  so  effective  a  method  of  arousing  the  interest 
of  the  community  in  its  vital  problems. 

M.  EDITH  CAMPBEU, 

Director  of  the  Schmidlapp  Bureau. 

I 
1 


1 


INTRODUCTION 

This  vocational  study  of  garment-making  industries  is  the  sec- 
ond of  the  kind  undertaken  by  the  Survey  Committee  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati Chamber  of  Commerce.  The  first  was  of  the  printing  trades, 
the  report  of  which  was  published  nearly  two  years  ago.  These 
studies  form  part  of  the  industrial  survey  of  Cincinnati  being  made 
by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

The  credit  for  this  piece  of  work  should  go  to  Miss  Cleo  Murt- 
land,  who  has  collected  the  facts  and  prepared  the  report;  the  criti- 
cism should  be  directed  at  those  who  collaborated  with  her — Mr. 
Frank  P.  Goodwin,  Director  of  Civic  and  Vocational  Service  in  the 
public  schools,  and  the  undersigned. 

The  expense  of  printing  this  report  is  met  by  the  Schmidlapp 
Bureau  for  Women  and  Girls,  of  which  Miss  M.  Edith  Campbell 
is  the  Director. 

Miss  Murtland's  services  were  loaned  by  the  National  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education  of  which  she  is  the  Sec- 
retary in  charge  of  Women's  Work. 

The  expense  of  making  the  study  was  met  by  contributions  from 
garment  manufacturers  in  Cincinnati,  most  of  whom  are  now  mem- 
bers of  the  Textile  Sewing  Trades  Association  of  the  Cincinnati 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  from  Mr.  Max  Senior  and  Miss  Frances 
Forchheimer. 

So  many  people  have  assisted  in  so  many  ways  that  the  study 
has  become  a  result  of  truly  co-operative  effort.  Particular  refer- 
ence should  be  made  also  to  the  following,  to  whom  the  committee 
is  deeply  indebted  for  help  of  many  kinds,  from  the  collection  of 
data  to  criticism  of  the  report : 

Mr.  Randall  J.  Condon,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Cincinnati. 

Miss  Mary  M.  Conway,  Director  Continuation  Schools,  Cin- 
cinnati. 

Miss  Kathryn  Nordman,  Treasurer  of  Garment  Workers' 
Union  No.  154. 

The  Ohio  Industrial  Commission. 

Dr.  Charles  A.  Prosser,  Secretary  of  the  National  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education. 

Prof.  David  Snedden,  Ph.  D.,  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
Massachusetts. 

Mr.  Meyer  Schwartz,  former  General  Organizer  for  Garment 
Workers'  Unions. 

Mr.  George  C.  Tebbenhoff,  Label  Agent  for  Garment  Workers' 
Labor  Council  No.  8. 

Miss  Charlotte  M.  Ullrich,  Director,  Household  Arts  Depart- 
ment, Cincinnati  Public  Schools. 


Mr.  Jsmes  A    Wibon,  President,  Pattern  Makers'  League  of 

North  America. 
Mr.  Charles  H.  Winslow,    of    the    Indiana    State    Industrial 

Survey. 
Mrs.  Helen  T.  Woolley,  Director  of  the  Vocational  Bureau, 

Cincinnati  Public  Schools. 
Members  of  the  Textile  Sewing  Trades  Association,  Cincinnati 

Chamber  of  Comerce. 

This  report  is  printed  with  the  hope  that  thus  it  may  become 
useful  not  only  to  Cincinnatians,  but  to  those  in  other  cities  who 
are  interested  in  solving  the  problems  of  vocational  instruction  for 
girls  in  the  public  schools,  and  to  garment  manufacturers  who  wish 
to  learn  in  what  manner  schools  may  help  them  and  their  employ- 
ees. The  Cincinnati  schools  have  begun  to  follow  the  recommen- 
dations of  this  report  before  it  is  published. 

C.  R.  HEBBLE, 

Director  of  the  Survey. 
Cincinnati,  December  20,  1916. 


CONTENTS. 

INTRODUCTION  by  Charles  R.  Hebble,  Manager  of  the  Civic  and 
Industrial  Department,  Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

PREFACE  by  M.  Edith  Campbell,  Director  of  the  Schmidlapp 
Bureau  for  Women  and  Girls. 

CHAPTER  I. — Summary  and   Constructive  Recommendations. 

CHAPTER  II.— Purpose  and  Method  of  the  Study. 

The  Public  School  and  the  Garment  Worker  —  Men's  Employ- 
ment Standardized  —  Women's  Employments  Lack  Standard- 
ization —  Purpose  of  the  Study  —  Factors  of  the  Industry 
Considered  —  Alteration  Departments  —  Character  of  Data 
Used  in  Report. 

CHAPTER  III.— The  Garment-Making  Industries  vs.  The  Needle 
Trades. 

Needle-Trades  a  Misnomer  —  Factors  Entering  in  Garment 
Manufacture  —  Garment-Making  Not  a  Mechanical  Process  — 
Excessive  Labor  Turnover  —  The  Garment  Industries  Meet  a 
Demand  —  The  Outlook  in  Cincinnati. 

CHAPTER  IV.— Some  Historical  Facts  About  the  Garment  In- 
dustries of  Cincinnati. 

Cincinnati,  One  of  the  Oldest  Centers  of  the  Garment  Trades  — 
Conditions  in  1859  —  Chamber  of  Commerce  Statement  for  1860 
-  Effect  of  the  Civil  War  —  Clothing  Industries  and  the  Yards 
Goods  Trade  —  Increase  of  Business  in  1890-1900  —  Women's 
Clothing  First  Made  1889-1890  — Developments  Since  1911- 
Summary  of  History. 

CHAPTER  V.— Present  Organization  of  the  Cincinnati  Garment 
Industries. 

Men's  Clothing  Trade  —  Hat  and  Cap  Industry  —  Shirt  and 
Overall  Industry  —  Women's  Wear  Industry  —  Men's  Neck- 
wear—  Straw  Hat  Industry  —  The  Manufacturer  and  the  Con- 
tractor —  The  Contracting  System  Within  the  Factory  —  Con- 
tract Shops  Outside  —  Organization  of  Clothing  Manufacturers 
—  Organization  of  Garment  Workers  —  Women's  Share  in 
Cincinnati's  Occupations  —  Women  Employed  Largely  in 
Garment  Manufacture  —  Wages  Paid  to  Garment  Workers  — 
Nationality  of  Women  Garment  Workers  —  Education  of 
Women  Garment  Workers  —  Compulsory  Education  Law  of 
1913  —  Age  of  Women  Garment  Workers  —  Demand  for 
Trained  Workers  —  Encouraging  Attitude  of  Cincinnati  Manu- 
facturers. 

CHAPTER  VI.— Conditions  in  the  Garment  Industries. 
1.  Regularity  of  Work  and  Wages. 

Seasonal  Employment  —  Report  of  Industrial  Commission  of 
Ohio   on    Seasonal    Employment  —  Causes    of    Irregularity - 
The  Seasonal  Demand  —  Dovetailing  of  Occupations  —  Divi- 
sion  of  Work   in   Slack   Seasons  —  Lack   of   Organization   in 
Industry  —  Employers  Not  Aware  of  Extent  of  Variation - 

9 


Variation  in  Wages  Reported  by  Ohio  Industrial  Commission 
—Wage-Scales  Reported  by  Employers  —  Wages  as  Reported 
by  United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics. 
2.  Conditions  in  the  Factories. 

General  Type  of  Factory  —  Welfare  Work  — The  Contract 
Shop  —  Equipment :  Sewing  Machines  and  Chairs  —  Use  of 
Elevators  by  Employees  —  Effect  of  Trade  Upon  Health  and 
Character  of  Worker. 

CHAPTER  VII.— Selection  and  Promotion  of  Workers  in  the  Gar- 
ment Industries. 

By  Whom  Workers  Are  Employed  —  Method  of  Selection  — 
Workers  Under  18  —  Proportion  of  Workers  Who  Do  Not 
"Make  Good" —  Shifting  of  Workers  —  Training  of  Workers  in 
Factories  —  No  System  of  Promotions  —  What  Makes  an  Occu- 
pation Worth  While  for  the  Worker  —  What  the  Industry 
Requires  of  the  Worker  —  Health  Should  be  a  Primary  Con- 
sideration —  Dress  an  Important  Factor  —  Good  Eyesight 
Necessary  —  General  Education  is  Needed  —  Personality  - 
Temperamental  Tendencies  —  Trade  and  Technical  Knowledge 
—  Vocational  Training  from  the  Point  of  View  of  the  School, 
the  Industry,  and  the  Worker. 

CHAPTER  VIII.— Some  Facts  Regarding  the  Public  Schools. 
Recent  Advance  of  the  School  Attendance  Age  —  Psychological 
Laboratory  —  Employment    Certificate    Office  —  Placement 
Office  —  Vocational  Service  Department  —  Effect  of  New  Law 
on  Attendance  —  Decrease  in  Working  Certificates  —  Occupa- 
tions  Entered  —  Girls  Under   18  at   Home  —  Temporary   In- 
crease of  Retardation  —  Compulsory  Continuation   Schools  — 
Voluntary  Continuation  Classes,  Classes  in  Household  Arts  — 
Classes  in  Salesmanship  —  Co-operative  Education. 

CHAPTER  IX. — Descriptive  Analysis  of  the  Garment  Industries. 
Groups  of  Garment  Industries  —  Rank  —  Business  Organiza- 
tion of  Factory  —  Types  of  Work  —  Occupations  Common  to 
All  Branches  —  Spreading  —  Marking  —  Cutting  —  Designing 
-Buttonhole  Making:  Machine  Buttonholes,  Button  Sewing, 
Examining  —  Executive  Positions:  Foreman,  Forewoman. 

The  Tailoring  Industries : —  Men's   Clothing  —  Coat   Making  — 
Canvas  Making  —  Lining  Making — Pocket  Flaps,  Welts  and 
Cuffs  —  Seaming — Shoulder  Joining  —  Sleeve  Making  —  Ma- 
chine   Padding —Taping  —  Patch    Pockets  — Flap    Pockets - 
Piped     Pockets  — Welt     Pockets  —  Faced     Pockets  —  Edg€ 
Stitching  --  Hand  Sewing  —  Marking  --  Canvas  Basting  — 
Sleeve  Setting  —  Facing  Basting  -  -  Lining  Basting  -  -  Arm- 
hole  Basting  —  Finishing  —  Buttonholes,  Handmade  —  Button 
Sewing  —  Piped   Buttonholes  —  Binding  --  Bullion   Work  - 
Braiding  —  Wages  —  Educational  Requirements. 

Vest  Processes: — Vest  Pockets  — The  Front  — The  Lining. 

Pants   Processes :— Pants   Pockets  — The   Fly  —  The   Seams - 
Serging  —  Tacking. 

10 


Pressing : —  Part  Pressing.  —  Under  Pressing  —  Off-Pressing. 

Cloak,  Suit  and  Skirt  Industry :— Style— Draping— The  Draper— 
The  Model  —  The  Sewing  Operations. 

Coat  Making: — Hand  Processes  —  Skirt  Making  —  Skirt  Seam- 
ing —  Plackets  —  Binding  —  Tacking  —  Hemming  —  Finish- 
ing—  Machine  Operators. 

Shirt  Making: — Collar  Making — Collar  Setting — Sleeve  Making 

—  Making  Fronts  and  Bosoms  —  Hemming  —  Yoke  Setting  — 
Shoulder  Joining —  Sleeve  Setting —  Seaming  —  Collar  Bands. 

Overalls : — All-year-round  Industry — Exclusively  Machine  Work 
—Pockets  —  Seams  —  Felling —  Sleeve  Setting  —  Buttonholes 
— Buttons. 

Women's  Wear: — Seaming — Sleeve  Making — Sleeve  Setting — 
Collar  Setting —  Hemming  —  Felling — Hemstitching  —  Tuck- 
ing. 

Men's  Neckwear: —  Hemming  —  Seaming  —  Joining. 

Hats  and  Caps. 

CHAPTER  X— What  the  School  May  Teach  the  Garment  Workers. 

Basis  for  the  Educational  Program  —  Type  of  Training  Needed 
for  Modern  Industry  -  -  Skill,  Related  Trade  and  Technical 
Knowledge,  and  General  Vocational  Knowledge  as  Essentials 
of  the  Vocational  School  Program. 

Skill  Through  Practice  —  Garment  Making  versus  Series  of 
Processes  —  Processes  Denned  —  Construction  of  Garments  — 
Finishing  —  Important  Factors  in  Learning  Processes — Learn- 
ing of  Processes  Not  Isolated  from  Garment  Making — Spec- 
ialization by  Means  of  Team- Work  —  Specialization  on  Special 
Machine  Work. 

Related  Subjects  —  Related  Subject-matter  Defined  —  Arith- 
metic —  Art  —  Business  English  —  Textiles  —  Spelling. 
General  Vocational  Subjects  —  Related  Subject-matter  Defined 
-  Hygiene  —  Industrial  History  —  Civics  and  Citizenship  — 
Practical  Business  Arithmetic  —  Laboratory  Work  in  Textiles 
— Certain  Phases  of  Art  Instruction. 

Some  Suggestions  About  Methods  of  Teaching  in  the  Voca- 
tional School  —  Methods  Differ  From  Those  Used  in  the  Ele- 
mentary and  High  Schools  —  Methods  for  Vocational  Instruc- 
tion Not  Standardized  —  Subject-matter  for  Courses  Should  be 
Drawn  from  Work-room  Practice  —  Co-operation  of  Teachers 

—  Co-operation   of   Manufacturers. 

The  Program  —  Work-room  Practice  and  Instruction  —  In- 
struction in  Related  and  General  Vocational  Subjects  -  -  A 
Probationary  Period  for  Testing  Aptitudes  and  Interest  - 
What  the  Probationary  Period  Should  Do  --  The  Regular  Vo- 
cational Course —  What  It  Should  Do  —  Occupations  Which 
Pupils  May  Expect  to  Enter  —  Conditions  Under  Which  They 
Should  Enter  -  -  Larger  Educational  and  Social  Values  to  be 
Secured  Through  Vocational  Education. 


11 


CHAPTER  I. 

Summary  and  Constructive  Recommendations. 

The  study  of  the  garment  industries  of  Cincinnati  shows  that 
there  is  a  demand  for  trained  workers  in  these  industries  of  the  city. 
It  is  estimated  that  not  over  25%  of  the  workers  already  engaged  in 
the  garment  industries  (exclusive  of  cutters  for  whom  apprentice- 
ship training  is  provided)  are  sufficiently  trained  for  their  work. 
Conservative  estimate  places  the  need  for  all-round  trained  workers 
at  40%  of  the  number  engaged  in  the  industry. 

This  margin  of  15%  (approximately  1200  persons)  includes  a 
large  body  of  untrained  workers,  200  or  300  of  whom  enter  the  in- 
dustry each  year  as  beginners.  Such  beginners  should  have  trade- 
preparation  training  which  will  provide  for  (1)  general  training  for 
the  trade,  (2)  special  training  for  an  occupation  in  a  branch  of  the 
trade,  and  (3)  general  education  of  a  practical  nature.  In  this 
group  of  1200,  there  is  included  also  a  large  group  of  workers,  900 
or  1,000,  already  employed  in  the  industry  who  require  training 
which  will  supplement  their  trade  knowledge  and  skill  already 
gained  in  the  industry.  Courses  should  be  planned  definitely  for 
the  purpose  of  increasing  their  general  intelligence  and  opportunity 
for  advancement  in  their  occupation.  This  trade  extension  instruc- 
tion should  be  given  to  groups  separate  and-  apart  from  the  trade 
preparatory  pupils  in  the  night  schools,  and  in  part-time  courses 
during  the  day  when  feasible. 

The  analysis  of  the  garment  industries  shows  that  there  is  a 
teachable  content  of  sufficient  importance  and  interest  to  warrant 
the  establishment,  by  the  public  schools,  of  courses  in  factory  gar- 
ment making. 

Employers  and  employees  agree  that  vocational  courses  should 
provide  training  for  garment  making  and  that  emphasis  should  be 
placed  (1)  upon  making  the  entire  garment  exclusive  of  the  cutting 
and  pressing  which  are  distinct  from  the  making  processes,  and 
(2)  upon  specialization  to  develop  normal  speed  and  accuracy  of 
work  in  one  or  more  phases — operations  so-called — of  factory  gar- 
ment making.  With  the  probable  exception  of  a  tailored  coat, 
pupils  may  be  taught  to  construct  the  entire  garment  with  a  high 
degree  of  success  as  to  finished  product.  The  ability  to  construct 
the  garment  beginning  with  simple  garments,  and  proceeding  to 
those  of  more  complicated  construction,  combined  with  practice 
on  separate  processes  makes  for  a  desirable  grade  of  workmanship 
and  efficiency  on  the  part  of  the  worker,  and  with  this  ability,  the 
worker  will  have  proportionately  less  difficulty  in  making  adjust- 
ments which  may  become  necessary  through  fluctuating  demands 
for  help.  The  opposite  method  of  approach,  as  it  has  been  used  in 
the  factory,  tends  to  prevent  all-round  training,  *  and  to  empha- 

*  The  terms  all-round  training  and  all-round  worker  are  used  throughout  this 
report  to  designate  the  all-round  experience  in  terms  of  modern  industry's  concep- 
tion of  such  ability  and  not  in  terms  of  craftmanship.  The  garment  industries  are 
composed  of  three  distinct  groups  of  trades  namely:  (1)  designing  and  cutting, 
(2)  garment  making — the  sewing,  and  (3)  pressing.  The  ability  to  do  a  group  of 
related  processes  in  any  one  of  these  fields  of  work  constitutes  all-round  ability  of 
modern  industry. 

12 


size  the  over-specialization  which  both  workers  and  employers  now 
consider  inadequate  and,  except  for  a  small  proportion  of  workers, 
very  undesirable.  The  normal  speed  required  for  factory  produc- 
tion may  be  secured  by  supplementing  garment-making  by  the 
above  method  with  section  work  similar  to  that  used  in  the  factory. 

Hand-sewing  and  machine-sewing  courses  may  be  given  in 
school  rooms  and  in  factories.  (1)  Trade-preparatory  courses  for 
young  persons  under  eighteen  years  of  age  should  be  provided  for  in 
an  all-day  vocational  school.  Work-rooms,  in  the  vocational  school, 
should  be  supplied  with  modern  factory  equipment;  they  should 
be  carefully  arranged  as  to  light,  ventilation  and  space  and  man- 
aged, as  far  as  consistent  with  educational  principles,  like  a  high- 
grade  modern  factory.  Class-rooms  for  general  and  related  courses 
should  be  provided.  (2)  Trade-extension  courses  for  the  workers 
already  employed  in  the  industry  may  be  given  in  the  school  work- 
rooms as  part  of  the  work  of  the  night  schools.  Dull  seasons 
offer  opportunity  for  short  courses  for  workers  in  the  trade.  These 
may  also  be  given  in  the  school  work-rooms,  but  it  is  essential  that 
such  courses  be  organized  apart  from  the  day  school  and  with 
special  reference  to  the  experience  and  needs  of  the  workers  taking 
the  courses.  (3)  Trade-extension  courses  may  be  given  in  the 
factories  during  dull  seasons  by  agreement  of  school  representa- 
tives with  employers  and  employees,  the  school  to  furnish  the 
teachers  and  the  employers  to  furnish  the  space,  equipment,  and 
work. 

The  number  of  workers  trained  in  the  all-day  vocational  school 
should  not  exceed  the  normal  demand  for  workers.  As  the  de- 
mand may  fluctuate  from  year  to  year,  this  factor  should  receive 
constant  attention  from  the  standpoint  of  the  workers  as  well  as 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  employers.  This  puts  some  limitations 
upon  the  all-day  school ;  but  as  the  demand  for  new  workers  in  the 
garment-industries  in  Cincinnati  at  present  represents  from  200  to 
300  persons  per  year — a  much  larger  number  than  the  school  may 
expect  to  train  for  several  years, — the  problem  is  not  important  at 
present  and  may  be  controlled  in  case  it  should  be  necessary. 

This  problem  does  not  arise  at  all  in  connection  with  the  train- 
ing of  workers  already  in  the  industry.  Those  who  wish  to  in- 
crease their  efficiency  or  prepare  for  work  which  requires  greater 
ability  in  garment-construction,  greater  skill  in  handling  fabrics, 
or  more  knowledge  about  the  trade  than  they  already  have,  may  be 
trained  in  short  courses  in  the  night  schools  and  in  part-time  day 
schools,  without  risk  of  overcrowding  the  ranks. 

Instruction  in  trade-subjects  and  work-room  practice  should 
be  given  by  experienced  trades  persons  who  have  demonstrated 
their  ability  to  teach.  Requirements  for  teachers  of  trade-subjects 
and  work-room  practice  should  be  (1)  a  minimum  of  two  years 
successful  experience  in  the  trade  to  be  taught,  (2)  general  educa- 
tion of  elementary  grade,  or  its  equivalent,  or  high  school  grade, 
and  (3)  personal  qualifications  that  make  for  successful  teaching. 
Requirements  for  teachers  of  related  subjects  and  general  academic 

13 


subjects  in  the  vocational  school  should  be  (1)  acceptable  profes- 
sional training  and  (2)  knowledge  of,  or  experience  in,  the  trade 
which  will  enable  the  teachers  to  interpret  academic  subject  matter 
in  terms  of  the  trade,  and  (3)  personal  qualifications  that  make  for 
successful  teaching. 

The  product  made  in  the  work-rooms  of  the  school  should  be 
of  a  commercial  character  which  may  be  used  in  the  school  or  dis- 
posed of  for  school  purposes.  Sufficient  repetition  necessary  for 
the  development  of  technique  and  manipulative  skill  should  be 
provided  for,  but  the  type  of  product  and  fabrics  used  should  be 
varied  so  as  to  make  experience  and  trade  information  broad. 

The  extent  to  which  trained  workers  may  be  attracted  into 
industrial  occupations  depends  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the 
physical  conditions  of  the  factories,  the  halls  and  premises,  and  the 
vicinity  of  factory  buildings.  Industry  will  do  well  to  make  its 
factories  clean,  orderly,  well-lighted,  well-ventilated,  and  attractive. 
These  improvements  may  be  made  without  large  expenditure  of 
money  or  attempt  at  display.  Then  will  industry  attract  trained 
workers  who  will  bring  intelligent  interest  into  their  work. 

The  garment  manufacturers  and  workers  need  to  realize  the 
necessity  for  studying  more  closely  the  problems  of  distributing 
work  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Work  should  be 
distributed,  or  the  regular  product  supplemented  with  a  type  that 
may  be  alternated  with  it,  so  as  to  utilize  the  time  and  labor  of  the 
regular  employees  and  decrease  the  length  of  the  seasons  of  unem- 
ployment. This  report  makes  no  attempt  to  go  into  this  problem 
further  than  to  report  instances  where  filling-in  lines  were  used  to 
increase  the  length  of  seasons,  and  to  point  out  the  importance  of 
the  dovetailing  problem. 

The  opportunity  for  learning  new  phases  of  the  trade  after 
entering  industry  is  also  dependent  largely  upon  the  attitude  of  em- 
ployer and  the  schools.  Training  in  any  trade  or  profession  should 
continue  after  employment  begins.  Industry  can  to  some  extent 
provide  the  means  and  the  incentive  for  training  by  rotation  of 
work  and  a  system  of  promotions  based  on  efficiency,  interest  in 
work,  and  ability.  Rotation  of  work  arranged  with  due  allowance 
for  factory  demands  will  relieve  monotony  and  avoid  the  over-spec- 
ialization of  workers.  A  system  of  promotion  based  upon  a  care- 
ful classification  of  the  operations,  with  earning  possibilities  pro- 
portionate to  the  importance  of  the  work,  will  stimulate  interest 
in  the  trade  and  create  a  desire  for  increased  efficiency  on  the  part 
of  the  workers.  There  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  employers 
in  the  garment  industries  not  to  employ  girls  under  18  years  of  age 
since  legal  restrictions  have  been  placed  upon  their  employment 
below  that  age.  These  girls  still  remain  an  important  factor  in  the 
sewing  trades,  however,  as  Mrs.  Woolley's  report  for  working  cer- 
tificate girls  shows.  It  is  the  second  largest  and  most  stable  group 
among  those  reported  as  applying  for  working  certificates. 

It  should  be  recognized  at  the  outset  that  the  girls  who  will  be 
prepared  for  industrial  employments  in  the  vocational  courses 

14 


planned  after  the  recommendations  of  this  report  will  not  remain 
in  school  until  they  are  18  years  of  age.  Hence,  employment  under 
that  age  becomes  imperative  for  them  even  if  they  have  to  become 
workers  in  occupations  less  skilled  than  the  garment  industries. 
But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  they  have  been  previously  trained  in  a 
vocational  school,  they  will  take  with  them  into  the  garment  indus- 
try working  ability  and  general  intelligence  about  their  work  which 
will  more  than  offset  the  inconvenience  of  special  hours  and  work- 
ing paper  regulations. 

The  schools,  too,  have  a  responsibility  in  this  matter.  The  full- 
time,  uninterrupted,  twelve-year  course  of  the  elementary  schools 
and  the  high  schools,  has  been  over-emphasized  for  young  people 
who  cannot  complete  the  high  school  course  or  continue  beyond  the 
high  school.  The  schools  will  realize  their  largest  usefulness  when 
courses  are  arranged  so  as  to  encourage  pupils  to  continue  their 
studies  after  they  have  become  workers.  Such  a  system  will  pro- 
vide for  industry  a  type  of  vocational  education  comparable  to 
that  which  has  been  built  up  for  commercial  and  clerical  and  pro- 
fessional occupations  in  the  night  schools. 

In  view  of  the  conditions  outlined  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs, 
the  Survey  Committee  makes  the  following 


15 


RECOMMENDATIONS. 

1.  That  an  all-day  vocational  school  for  girls  be  established  as 
a  part  of  the  Cincinnati  Public  School  System  which  shall  provide 
at  first  for  from  100  to  200  trade-preparatory  pupils. 

2.  That  those  pupils  preparing  for  the  sewing  trades  in  the  in- 
dustrial classes  of  the  various  schools  of  the  city  be  centralized  in 
one  building  as  a  nucleus  of  the   Girls'  Vocational   School ;  that 
co-operative  relations  between  the  Girls'  Vocational  School  and  the 
regular  elementary  and  high  schools  of  the  city  be  established  so 
that  girls  wishing  to  prepare  for  a  vocation  may  be  advanced  to 
the  Girls'  Vocational  School  by  means  of  intelligent  information 
and  advice. 

3.  That  this  central  vocational  school,   during  the  first  few 
years,  serve  as  a  type  school  to  work  out  standards  for  the  courses 
to  be  presented  and  methods  of  teaching,  in  order  that  it  serve  as 
an  experiment  station  for  this  type  of  education  for  girls  in  the 
city ;  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  high  schools,  decentralization  take 
place  only  as  experience  shows  the  need  and  the  way.     Experience 
in  other  cities  goes  to  show  that  this  method  works  out  the  strong- 
est and  most  effective  scheme. 

4.  That   conditions    of   admission   to    this    all-day    vocational 
school  be  (1)  a  minimum  entrance  age  of  14  years,  (2)  completion 
of  the  seventh  grade,  (3)  a  probationary  period  of  one  month  in  the 
school  to  test  aptitude  for,  and  interest  in,  the  vocation  for  which 
training  is  to  be  given ;  and  (4)  that  the  vocational  courses  shall 
be  open  only  to  normal  children. 

5.  That  two  full  school  years  constitute  the  vocational  course. 

6.  That  the  half-and-half  plan  of  organization  be  used  for  the 
all-day  vocational  school,  with  half  of  the  school  day  devoted  to 
trade  instruction  and  shop  practice  and  half  to  instruction  in  general 
and  related  academic  subjects. 

7.  That  these  vocational  courses  shall  train  young  persons  for 
occupations  in  the  sewing  trades  with  special  reference  to  garment 
construction  in  the  various  branches  of  the  sewing  trades.     That 
the  courses  include  such  hand-sewing  and  machine-sewing  as  are 
carried  on  in  the  work  rooms  of  the  garment  factories  and  in  the 
stores  of  the  city. 

8.  That  the  all-day  vocational  courses  for  the  first  j'ear  empha- 
size the  all-round  training  in  garment  construction,  that  during  the 
second  year  attention  be  given  to  necessary  specialization. 

9.  That  general  and  related  academic  courses  be  planned  with 
special  reference  to  occupational  demands ;  that  these  courses  be 
placed  under  the  direction  of  a  competent  teacher  who  understands 
and  appreciates  the  educational   value  of  the   demands  of  trade. 
Such   instruction,   while   essentially   practical    in   character,   when 
rightly  presented,  may  be  made  broad  in  its  general,  ethical,  and 
cultural  values. 

16 


10.  That  general  courses  include  instruction  in  the  responsibil- 
ities  of   citizenship,    home    relationships,    industrial    and    business 
relationships,  ethics,  co-operation,  and  industrial  history  especially 
in  its  bearing  upon  modern  industrial  conditions. 

11.  That  the  element  of  proper  use  cf  time  in  performing  tasks 
shall  be  emphasized  throughout  the  course.     To  this  end,   it  is 
suggested  that,  from  the  beginning  of  the  course,  a  time  for  per- 
forming each  piece  of  work  be  set  upon  the  task  before  it  is  begun. 
The  time  assignment  should  be  made  to  a  scale  which  allows  a 
greater  amount  of  time  for  beginners,  with  a  decreasing  amount  of 
time  as  skill  and  speed  are  acquired.     Such  an  educational  method, 
used  to  develop  normal  speed,  should  not  be  confused  with  the 
over-speeding  and  pace-setting  which  have  been  used  in  factories; 
but,  together  with  quality  of  workmanship,  should  serve  as  a  meas- 
ure of  accomplishment  in  school  work,  and  develop  in  pupil's  ability 
for  judging  these  factors  of  over-speeding  and  pace-setting  after 
wage-earning  has  begun. 

12.  That  work  rooms  for  machine  sewing  courses  and  hand- 
sewing  courses  be  equipped  according  to  modern  factory  standards 
and  with  special  reference  to  the  physical  comfort  of  the  pupils. 
The  distribution  of  light  for  both  hand-sewing  and  machine-sewing 
is  important.     The  majority  of  school  work-rooms  used  for  hand- 
sewing  are  equipped  with  chairs  and  tables  which  are  too  high  for 
best  results  in  work  or  the  comfort  of  pupils.     Tables  for  hand- 
sewing  should  be  from  27  to  29  inches  in  height  and  chairs  corre- 
spondingly high  should  be  from  15  to  16  inches  in  height  according 
to  the  stature  of  pupils.     Few  pupils  under  16  years  of  age  can 
work  with  comfort  at  a  table  of  the  regulation  height  of  30  inches 
and   seated  in   chairs  of  the   regulation   height  of   18   inches.     A 
general  guide  in  determining  the  height  of  the  chair  for  a  pupil  is 
to  have  the  knees  as  high  or  slightly  higher  than  the  hips  when 
seated  and  the  feet  resting  fully  upon  the  floor.     It  is  also  suggested 
that  the  other  class-rooms  in  the  school  be  equipped  with  equal 
regard  for  the  physical  comfort  of  the  pupils  and  preferably  with- 
out the  formal  school-room  furniture. 

13.  That  the  greater  part  of  the  product  be  made  for  other 
than  personal  use.     Making  garments  for  others  invites  necessary 
criticism  and  sets  a  valuation  upon  work  which  puts  the  emphasis 
upon  learning  and  accomplishment ;  where  all  product  is  made  for 
personal  use,  personal  adornment  is  over  emphasized,  often  undesir- 
ably, and  the  work  lacks  proportionately  in  educational  and  ethical 
values. 

14.  That  the  conditions  for  graduation  from  the  two-year  voca- 
tional course  consist  in  (1)  satisfactory  completion  of  the  general 
course;   (2)  sufficient  knowledge  of,  and  skill  in,  the  practice  of 
the  trade  to   enter  it  substantially   in   advance  of  the   untrained 
person ;  and  (3)  six  months'  satisfactory  service  in  the  industry, 
certificate   of   graduation   to  be   withheld   until   evidence  of   such 
service  has  been  given. 

15.  That  the  Placement  Bureau  of  the  public  schools,  in  co- 
operation with  the  principal  of  the  Girls'  Vocational  School,  assume 

17 


the  responsibility  of  securing  desirable  positions  for  graduates  of 
the  vocational  school ;  that  they  follow  up  and  assist  workers  during 
the  six  months'  probationary  period  in  the  industry  and  during  as 
much  of  the  latter  working  period  as  may  be  necessary. 

16.  That  the  schools,  in  co-operation  with  employers  and  em- 
ployees, build  up  a  strong  system  of  trade-extension  courses  in  the 
schools  and  in  the  factories.     This  will  require  time  and  untiring 
effort  upon  the  part  of  the  industry  as  well  as  the  schools;  but 
when  assured,  it  will  go  far  to  place  industrial  occupations  on  a 
basis  comparable,  in  measure,  to  business  and  professional  occupa- 
tions which  have  been  greatly  strengthened  by  similar  methods  of 
training. 

17.  That  an  advisory  board  composed  of  representatives  of  the 
manufacturers,  the  workers,  and  the  public  schools  be  appointed  t 
to  assist  the  school  in  standardizing  courses  of  study  and  methods 
of  instruction. 

18.  That  civic  and  social  organizations  interested  in  construc- 
tive  civil,  social,  and  educational  work  aid  the  work  of  the  girls' 
vocational  school  in  carrying  out  these  recommendations  by  helping 
to  create  a  sentiment  less  critical  and  condemnatory  of  factory  em- 
ployments.    The  garment  industries  do  not  need  to  present  con- 
ditions detrimental  to  the  health  and  welfare  of  workers.     Where 
such  conditions  do  exist,  they  may  be  eliminated  by  right  standards 
within  the  factory.     Society  can  and  should  exert  itself  to  bring 
about  right  standards.     Garment  industries  piovide,  to  a  large  num- 
ber of  workers,  a  means  for  valuable  and  necessary  social  service, 
as  well  as  means  for  earning  a  livelihood.     Because  of  this  fact 
society  should  exert  its  influence  to  bring  about  an  evaluation  of 
industrial  work  in  terms  of  service  to  the  community. 

CHAPTER  II. 
Purpose  and  Method  of  the  Study. 

The  public  schools  have  come  to  realize  in  recent  years  that  a 
considerable  number  of  women  enter  the  sewing  industries  each 
year,  who,  under  present  conditions,  are  not  receiving  preparation 
for  the  work  they  take  up.  The  present  method  of  instruction  used 
for  teaching  sewing  in  the  regular  schools  is  not  meeting  the  need 
and  the  factory  makes  only  incidental  provision  for  training  new 
workers.  This  is  true  not  only  of  Cincinnati  but  of  all  cities  in 
which  the  sewing  industries  are  located.  This  study  is  made  pri- 
marily, then,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  what  methods  may  be 
drawn  from  the  modern  commercial  type  of  sewing  and  garment- 
making  to  replace  in  the  schools  those  that  are  rapidly  becoming 
obsolete  for  manufacturing  and  commercial  purposes. 

Men's  employment  in  the  garment  industries  is  more  practically 
standardized  as  to  requirements  and  promotion  of  workers  than 
women's.  An  apprenticeship  system  for  training  men  for  positions 
in  the  cutting,  pressing,  and  tailoring  departments  still  exists  in 
the  industry,  though  not  in  the  same  form  as  in  the  period  when 
apprentices  were  indentured.  The  factories  and,  to  some  extent, 

18 


the  large  contract  shops,  provide  general  supervision  for  learners 
in  these  departments  and  rotation  of  jobs  with  an  ascending  scale  of 
wages  for  each  of  the  periods  of  apprenticeship.  This  supervision 
and  recognition  of  achievement  through  promotion  and  increased 
wages  amounts  to  systematic  training  for  the  job.  Cutting  and 
pressing  have  been  standardized  by  this  method.  Tailors  are  still 
trained  in  the  trade,  though  a  much  shorter  period  of  apprentice- 
ship is  used  than  the  term  in  vogue  in  European  countries  in  the 
past  years.  The  need  for  training  men  outside  the  factory  is  less 
urgent  at  the  present  time  than  the  need  for  training  women,  for 
whom  no  system  of  training  and  no  recognized  system  of  promo- 
tion exists. 

Women's  employments  in  the  industries  lack  standardization 
and  provision  for  training.  The  result  has  been  loss  of  time, 
energy,  and  money,  discouragement  to  the  workers  through  mis- 
directed effort,  and  loss  to  the  industry  through  the  incompetency 
of  a  large  proportion  of  employees  and  heavy  labor  turnover.  The 
great  need  in  the  sewing  industries  at  the  present  time  is  for  train- 
ing in  hand-sewing  and  machine-sewing,  and,  as  these  are  mainly 
women's  employments,  the  study  has  been  directed  more  particu- 
larly toward  them.  This  study  points  out  that  standardization  is 
possible,  that  promotion  may  be  provided  for  if  operations  are 
classified  and  rotation  of  work  arranged.  Since  no  girls  under  16 
years  of  age  and  relatively  few  under  18  years  of  age  are  employed 
in  the  garment  industries  and  since  the  years  preceding  these  ages 
are  well  adapted  to  acquiring  the  necessary  training  and  skill  for 
this  work,  the  school  is  called  upon  to  assume  some  responsibility 
for  training  the  workers  for  this,  as  well  as  for  other,  skilled  and 
semi-skilled  employments. 

The  purpose  of  the  study  is  therefore: 

1 .  To  determine  the  extent  of  the  need  for  trained  workers 
in  the  garment  trades  in  Cincinnati. 

2.  To  determine  the  extent  to  which  instruction  in  the  gar- 
ment trades  may  be  given  in  the  schools : 

a.  As  trade  preparatory  courses  for  young  persons  who 
expect  to  go  to  work. 

b.  As  day  trade-extension  and  part-time  courses  for 

persons  employed  in  the  factories  who  wish  to  ad- 
vance in  the  trade. 

c.  As  night  trade-extension  courses  for  trade  workers. 

3.  To  determine  what  elements  of  the  trade  may  be  taught 
in  the  school. 

4.  To  determine  what  educational  qualifications  are  desir- 
able for  successful  work  in  the  industry. 

5.  To  secure  the  co-operation  of  the  public  schools  and  the 
manufacturers  and   employees  engaged  in  the  garment 
industries  of  Cincinnati  in  establishing  and  conducting 
vocational  courses  for  girls  that  will  extend  their  general 
education  and  give  a  form  of  experience  that  will  fit  them 
for  desirable  wage-earning  occupations  in  the  industry. 

19 


In  planning  for  this  study  of  the  garment  industries,  it  was 
realized  at  the  outset  that  any  scheme  of  training  proposed  as  a 
result  of  the  study  must  include  consideration  of  ail  the  representa- 
tive garment  industries  of  Cincinnati.  This  report,  therefore,  in- 
cludes the  clothing  and  tailor-to-the-trade  industries;  the  cloak, 
suit  and  skirt  industry;  the  shirt  industry;  the  overall  industry;  the 
women's  wear  industries ;  the  men's  neckwear  industry ;  the  hat  and 
cap  industry;  and  the  straw  hat  industry. 

Such  factors  of  the  industry  as  may  contribute  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  course  of  study  for  educating  and  training  women  workers 
engaged  in,  or  contemplating  employment  in,  the  garment  indus- 
tries occupy  the  main  part  of  this  study.  Data  bearing  on  these 
and  other  more  general  but  pertinent  points  were  secured  from  three 
sources:  (1)  from  employers  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  gar- 
ments in  factories  (contracting  shops  are  not  included)  through 
schedules  and  personal  interviews  with  employers,  foremen,  and 
forewomen ;  (2)  from  employees  engaged  as  workers  in  the  garment 
industries  through  individual  and  personal  interviews;  and  (3) 
from  the  Industrial  Commission  of  Ohio.  Additional  data  were 
secured  from  Bulletins  145,  161  and  183  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics.  Twenty  employers'  schedules  representing 
the  largest  firms  and  the  bulk  of  the  workers  employed  in  the  in- 
dustry were  secured.  One  hundred  and  eighty-five  schedules  from 
individual  employees  were  secured.  Forms  of  these  schedules  ap- 
pear in  Appendix  A  of  this  report.  Certain  data  relating  to  the 
number  of  employees  and  wages  from  the  Industrial  Commission 
of  Ohio  and  from  publications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics  appear  in  the  body  of  the  text. 

The  extent  to  which  factory  machines  and  methods  of  sewing 
are  used  in  the  alteration  departments  of  the  specialty  and  depart- 
ment stores  and  dressmaking  establishments  of  the  city  present 
other  phases  for  study,  which,  for  lack  of  time  and  funds,  have  not 
been  included  in  this  report.  Information  about  these  work-rooms, 
which  are  rapidly  adopting  factory  methods  for  the  alteration  of 
ready-to-wear  clothing,  and  the  extent  to  which  they  provide  em- 
ployment for  trained  workers,  is  needed.  As  the  work  of  the  voca- 
tional school  progresses,  study  should  be  directed  to  the  analysis  of 
these  employments. 

Certain  purely  industrial  data  are  included  in  the  report.  While 
the  study  concerned  itself  chiefly  with  the  factors  that  contribute 
directly  toward  the  need  for  trained  employees  and  the  education 
and  training  that  may  be  given  to  prospective  workers  and  those 
already  engaged  in  the  trade,  such  points  as  hours  of  work,  seasonal 
fluctuations  in  the  industry,  wages,  and  factory  conditions  were  of 
necessity  considered.  This  report  does  not  attempt  to  do  more 
than  to  point  out  that  these  details  need  careful  and  constant  con- 
sideration on  the  part  of  both  the  industry  and  the  school,  if  work- 
ers are  to  be  trained  and  placed  in  the  garment-making  industries. 

Statistical  information  is  limited  to  a  few  topics.  There  is  little 
information  that  may  be  compiled  in  statistical  form  which  con- 

20 


tributes  materially  to  the  organization  of  a  course  of  study  for 
educating  and  training  workers.  For  this  reason  emphasis  has 
been  placed,  not  upon  statistics,  but  upon  those  features  of  the 
trade  which  contribute  more  directly  to  the  educational  program. 

CHAPTER  III. 
The  Garment-Making  Industries  vs.  The  Needle  Trades. 

The  Name  '"Needle  Trades",  which  has  been  used  to  designate 
the  garment  trades,  is  a  misnomer  since  it  necessarily  places  the 
emphasis  upon  a  tool  of  the  trade  and  minimizes  or  disregards  the 
important  technical  processes  which  more  accurately  characterize 
a  large  and  complex  group  of  industries.  The  use  of  the  needle  or 
the  sewing  machine  in  the  making  of  garments  occupies  the  same 
relative  importance  in  their  production  as  the  elementary  processes 
of  arithmetic  in  the  accountant's  work  or  the  carpenter's  tools  in 
building  a  house.  The  simple  processes  of  arithmetic  are  a  means] 
to  an  end  in  the  larger  computations  of  life.  The  carpenter's  tools 
and  the  garment  maker's  machine  or  needle,  thread,  and  thimble 
serve  a  similar  purpose  in  the  construction  of  houses  and  clothing. 
The  more  acceptable  descriptive  name  of  "Garment-Making  Indus- 
tries", which  recognizes  the  constructive  element  of  the  trade  with- 
out minimizing  the  mechanical  processes,  is  becoming  generally, 
applied. 

Three  factors  entering  into  the  manufacture  of  garments  and 
recognized  in  all  branches  of  the  industry  give  further  reason  for 
a  descriptive  name  and  serve  also  as  a  basis  for  classification. 
These  are  (1)  the  type  of  product  and  the  complexity  of  its  con- 
struction ;  (2)  the  kind  of  fabric  used  for  the  product,  as  woolen 
and  worsted  fabrics  for  tailored  garments,  cotton  and  linen  fabrics 
for  shirts,  plain  dresses  and  waists,  coarse  cotton  fabrics  for  over- 
alls and  jackets,  and  silks  and  lingerie  materials  for  fine  dresses 
and  waists;  and  (3)  the  type  of  machine  and  character  of  machine 
adjustments  necessary  for  the  various  kinds  of  fabrics. 

Each  branch  of  the  industry  is  more  or  less  affected  by  all 
these  factors,  though  the  point  of  greatest  emphasis  is  not  neces-> 
sarily  the  same  in  all  cases.  The  construction  of  a  tailored  coat 
is  presumably  determined  by  the  shape  or  "cut",  as  it  is  sometimes 
called.  But  cutting  is  only  one  factor  in  the  process  of  construc- 
tion. Other  factors  are  the  proportions  or  features  of  the  pattern 
used,  the  accuracy  with  which  parts  are  joined,  and  the  manner 
in  which  the  cloth  is  held  in,  stretched,  or  allowed  to  lie  even 
during  the  stitching  process.  The  pattern  is  made  by  the  cutter, 
but  the  accuracy  in  the  sewing  process  and  the  manipulation  of  the 
cloth,  such  as  holding  in  the  material  for  fullness  or  shrinking^ 
or  stretching  it  where  the  opposite  effect  is  desired,  or  letting  it 
lie  even  where  a  flat  effect  is  wanted,  are  dependent  upon  the 
skill  of  the  operator.  The  cutter  allows  for  these  details  but 
gives  to  the  worker  only  very  general  directions  for  executing  them. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  construction  of  simpler  garments  requires 
less  manipulation  of  the  cloth,  less  knowledge  of  fabrics,  and  pro- 

21 


portionally  less  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  worker.  These  exam- 
ples serve  in  general  to  illustrate  what  is  meant  by  the  inter-play 
of  factors  in  garment  construction. 

The  adjustment  of  the  machine  is  also  an  important  factor  in 
determining  the  nature  of  the  work.  Machines  are  adjusted  to  suit 
the  weight,  thickness,  texture  and  elasticity  of  fabrics.  The  height 
of  the  presser  foot,  the  number  of  stitches  to  the  inch,  and  the 
regulation  of  the  tension  on  the  spool  and  the  bobbin  thread  are 
so  important  that  special  machinists  are  employed  to  make  the 
adjustments  of  all  parts  to  scale. 

The  theory  that  garment-making  is  merely  a  series  of  mechan- 
ical processes  determined  by  the  machine  rather  than  by  the  skill 
and  intelligence  of  the  operator  is  rapidly  passing  and  a  recog- 
nition of  the  differentiation  between  the  mechanical  or  finishing 
processes  and  the  constructive  or  garment-building  processes  is 
taking  its  place.  As  the  style  and  the  quality  of  workmanship  in 
the  product  improves,  the  necessity  for  a  knowledge  of  garment 
construction  increases.  In  those  branches  of  the  industry  which 
make  a  high-grade,  exclusive  product,  the  employers  select  and 
train  a  group  of  workers  for  the  operations  which  require  skill, 
intelligence,  and  technical  knowledge.  Attention  is  also  being 
given  to  developing  workers  for  the  constructive  processes  in  the 
cheaper  lines  as  well. 

The  mechanical-process  theory  was  recently  tested  in  a  con- 
vincing way  in  several  cities  by  the  establishment  of  temporary 
work-rooms  for  unemployed  women  and  girls.  The  women,  some 
of  whom  had  a  knowledge  of  ordinary  home  sewing  and  others  of 
whom  had  no  knowledge  of  sewing  at  all,  were  gathered  into 
work-rooms  during  the  months  of  unemployment.  Upon  the  advice 
of  manufacturers  who  believe  that  anyone  who  can  sew  may  be  a 
garment  operator,  they  were  given  some  training  in  plain  sewing 
on  foot-power  machines  and  placed  in  positions  in  the  garment 
trades.  This  experiment,  though  of  great  value  in  tiding  workers 
over  a  difficult  period  and  valuable  in  its  contribution  of  data  to 
employment  bureaus,  was,  on  the  whole,  a  failure  so  far  as  training 
trade  workers  was  concerned,  since  too  few  were  sufficiently  trained 
or  skillful  to  do  the  work  given  them  in  the  factory  without  in- 
struction in  factory  methods. 

Other  and  more  convincing  evidence  of  the  fallacy  of  the  one- 
process  method  is  found  in  the  excessive  turnover  of  labor  in  those 
establishments  which  make  little  or  no  provision  for  utilizing 
workers  in  other  than  the  one  process  for  which  they  have  quali- 
fied. Every  manufacturer  realizes  that  any  considerable  number  of 
changes  in  the  working,  force  of  his  establishment  entails  a  loss  pro- 
portionate to  the  number  of  persons  involved  and  the  extent  to 
which  these  persons  are  skilled  workers.  Serious  study  is  now 
being  given  to  the  problem  of  the  number  of  employees  required 
to  keep  any  one  operation  or  group  of  operations  going  efficiently. 

Manufacturers  and  managers  recognize  that  a  large  part  of  the 
labor  turnover  among  beginners  is  due  to  discouragement.  Much 

22 


of  this  discouragement  proceeds  from  inability  to  understand  the 
demands  of  industry,  lack  of  skill,  and  lack  of  opportunity  to  ac- 
quire it  through  supervision  and  assistance  during  the  early  months 
of  employment.  Employers  recognize  that  those  facts  prove  the 
fallacy  of  the  idea  that  the  machine  rather  than  the  oper- 
ator is  responsible  for  the  quality  of  the  product.  A  few  manufac- 
turers are  studying  these  problems  but  no  data  are  as  yet  available 
to  show  in  any  conclusive  way  the  significance  of  labor  turnover 
in  cost  to  the  factory  or  in  discouragement  and  loss  to  the  workers. 
Mention  is  made  of  it  here  because  of  its  general  bearing  on  this 
report  and  because  it  should  be  weighed  in  closer  and  more  inti- 
mate study  of  the  problems  that  surround  the  education  and  train- 
ing of  workers  than  is  possible  at  the  present  time. 

The  garment  industries  have  demonstrated  their  ability  to  make 
a  product  which  satisfies  the  taste  and  standards  of  the  majority  of 
people.  The  increase  in  the  quantity  and  variety  of  ready-to-wear 
garments  and  the  proportionate  falling  off  of  the  custom  trades, 
particularly  custom  dressmaking,  verify  this  statement.  Ten  years 
ago  the  workmanship  on  the  best  of  the  factory  output  was  not 
acceptable  to  persons  who  demanded  well-made  garments ;  styles 
were  not  greatly  varied  and  sizes  were  relatively  limited.  The 
improved  methods  that  have  come  with  the  years  of  effort  to  make 
clothing  for  all  the  people  have  brought  good  workmanship  and 
skilled  designers  for  the  trade.  Styles  are  now  created  that  appeal 
to  persons  of  conservative  tastes  as  well  as  those  who  prefer  the 
ultra-fashionable  garments.  These  factors  have  very  materially 
changed  the  character  of  the  demand  for  ready-to-wear  garments 
and  increased  the  number  of  customers  who  purchase  them. 

Future  developments  in  the  industry,  outlined  as  desirable  by 
the  most  progressive  manufacturers,  include  the  following  import- 
ant requirements:  (1)  The  integrity  of  the  industry  demands  that 
over-cheap,  under-value  production  be  decreased ;  (2)  over-produc- 
tion, caused  by  lack  of  intelligent  estimate  of  the  demand,  should 
be  remedied  by  co-operation  on  the  part  of  manufacturers ;  (3) 
trained  workers  who  can  produce  high-grade,  even  quality  of  out- 
put which  the  public  is  demanding  are  needed  in  the  industry ;  and 
(4)  increased  intelligence  is  needed  on  the  part  of  the  consumer 
concerning  such  matters  as  heavy  seasonal  and  bargain-sale  buying 
and  the  pressure  which  the  constant  demand  for  new  styles  puts 
upon  the  industry  and  its  workers.  A  few  manufacturers  are  think- 
ing about  these  problems  but  no  concerted  effort  has  been  attempted 
and  progress  is  slow. 

Although  New  York  City  is  the  center  of  the  garment  industries 
which  supply  the  new  and  ultra-fashionable  styles,  those  branches 
which  make  a  staple  product  are  being  distributed  in  the  larger 
cities  and  to  some  extent  in  the  smaller  cities.  Practically  all 
branches  of  the  garment  trades  are  found  in  Cincinnati.  The 
clothing  industry,  the  cloak,  suit  and  skirt  industry,  the  overall  in- 
dustry and  the  shirt  industry  are  the  largest  and  the  oldest.  The 
manufacturing  of  women's  wear  of  cotton,  silk  and  lingerie  fabrics 

23 


is  just  beginning  to  be  developed  in  Cincinnati.  In  no  other  city 
is  the  outlook  more  favorable  for  the  improvements  and  develop- 
ments required  by  efficient  mass-production. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Some  Historical  Facts  About  the  Garment  Industries 
of  Cincinnati. 

Cincinnati  is  one  of  the  oldest  centers  for  the  manufacture  of 
garments  in  the  United  States.  As  nearly  as  can  be  determined  the 
making  of  clothing,  became  a  factory  industry  between  the  years 
1841  and  1851.  Tailors  were  enumerated  among  the  occupations 
in  Cincinnati  as  early  as  1841.  Cist  reports  that  86  clothing  stores 
employing  813  workers  and  that  nearly  4000  females  sewed  for 
these  establishments  in  their  own  homes.  Cist  also  reports  the 
same  year  25  hat  factories  employing  181  persons  and  making  a 
product  whose  annual  valuation  was  $312,000.*  The  character  of 
the  work  is  not  mentioned,  but  it  is  safe  to  infer  that  much  of  it 
was  done  by  hand.  Ten  years  later  these  industries  had  grown  to 
much  greater  proportions.  The  sewing  machine,  invented  in  1846, 
introduced  new  methods  of  manufacture,  and  greatly  increased  the 
manufacturing  possibilities. 

For  the  year  1859,  Cist  reports  five  establishments  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  "Cloaks,  Mantillas,  Etc.,"  which  employed  240 
girls,  working  nine  months  a  year  for  spring  and  fall  sales,  and  pro- 
ducing a  value  of  two  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  dollars.  Cloth- 
ing is  also  mentioned  in  this  report  as  "the  largest  business  carried 
on  in  Cincinnati — 48  wholesale  establishments  and  86  retail  estab- 
lishments. It  emplovs  7,080  seamstresses  who  use  1,016  sewing 
machines,  besides  7,500  more  who  sew  by  hand."*  Cincinnati  was 
also  for  some  years  the  largest  market  for  ready-to-wear  clothing 
"in  the  country  east  or  west."  According  to  Cist,  it  occupied  this 
place  in  1859,  while  for  many  years  its  only  rival  was  New  York, 
which  is  now  the  largest  garment  manufacturing  center  in  the 
United  States. 

The  Annual  Statement  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Cincin- 
nati for  1860  reports  upon  the  clothing  industries  and  comments 
upon  the  effect  of  the  recently  invented  sewing  machines  as  follows : 
"This  important  branch  of  Cincinnati  manufacture  has  been  in  a 
healthy  and  prosperous  state  during  the  past  year ;  the  increase  in 
it  has  been  quite  satisfactory,  and  the  demand  for  ready-made 
men's  clothing  increases  with  great  rapidity.  We  find  an  increase 
of  seven  wholesale  houses,  and  sixteen  retail  establishments  during 
the  year.  In  1855  there  were  but  29  wholesale  factories;  now  there 
are  74,  showing  that  the  trade  has  more  than  doubled  the  last  five 
years.  The  value  of  clothing  manufactured  in  this  city,  the  past 
year,  was  $16.500,000.  The  demand  is  from  all  portions  of  the  West 
and  Southwest.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  introduction  of  the 


*  Charles  Cist,  Cincinnati  in  1841,  pages  43  and  57. 
t  Charles  Cist,  Cincinnati  in  1859,  page  271. 

2i 


Sewing  Machine  gave  this  department  of  manufacture  a  great  im- 
petus, and  is  one  cause  of  the  wonderful  rapidity  of  its  increase. "J 

The  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in  1861  affected  the  trade  seri- 
ously. Official  reports  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  made  the 
following  statement  with  regard  to  business  conditions  in  the  in- 
dustry: "This  branch  of  our  industry  has  been  greatly  crippled  by 
the  disturbed  state  of  the  country,  and  were  it  not  for  the  supply 
of  army  clothing,  the  business  would  be  thoroughly  prostrated. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  falling  off  is  large,  fully  25  per  cent,  but 
an  improvement  may  be  looked  for,  as  clothing  is  a  necessity  and 
cannot  be  dispensed  with.  Not  having  the  statistics  of  the  exports 
of  clothing,  we  are  unable  to  give  the  result  of  the  year's  trade, 
which,  however,  is  far  from  satisfactory.'5* 

Nevertheless,  the  proximity  of  Cincinnati  to  the  Confederate 
States  brought  considerable  demand  for  army  clothing,  the  output 
of  which  amounted  to  over  six  million  dollars. f  The  garment  in- 
dustry seems  to  have  been  given  over  to  the  manufacture  of  army 
clothing  during  this  and  the  two  or  three  years  preceding  the  close 
of  the  war.  During  this  period  the  work  was  carried  on  in  small 
work-shops,  many  of  them  in  the  homes  and  much  of  it  was  done 
by  hand  and  represented  the  labor  of  women. 

Official  records  of  the  clothing  industry  are  meager  for  the  years 
following  the  war  and  not  until  1874  is  it  again  mentioned  in  the 
official  report  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce.  In  the  meantime, 
the  work-shops  had  been  organized  on  the  factory  basis.  The  re- 
port of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  for  1873-74  says  of  the  clothing 
industry  at  this  time,  "In  no  department  of  manufacture  and  trade 
has  more  vigor  been  displayed.  The  business  of  manufacturing  has 
been  reduced  to  the  most  complete  system.  Everything  has  been 
utilized.  The  best  cutters  have  been  employed.  The  latest  and 
best  styles  have  been  seized  upon  by  the  manufacturers,  and  new 
fields  of  trade  have  been  invaded  with  an  enthusiasm  and  the  old 
trade  held  with  a  tenacity  which  has  been  beneficial  alike  to  all 
concerned." 

Throughout  their  history  the  clothing  industries  have  been 
closely  connected  with  the  yard  goods  trade  and  were  for  many 
years  officially  reported  with  the  dry  goods  trade.  All  wearing 
apparel  manufactured  was  called  clothing  and  it  was  not  until  1880 
that  special  lines  of  clothing  were  recorded.  The  report  of  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce  for  this  year  says,  "During  the  year,  a 

number  of  new  houses  have  been  organized This  has  been 

marked  in  the  houses  for  the  manufacture  of  boys'  and  youths' 
clothing  which  has  become  a  distinctive  and  large  department  of 
production.  The  demand  for  a  superior  quality  of  clothing  ....  has 
been  equally  manifest  in  the  past  year So  marked  has  this 

*  Annual  Statement  of  the  Commerce  of  Cincinnati  1861.  Official  Report  of  the 
Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce,  p.  21. 

t  Annual  Statement  of  the  Commerce  of  Cincinnati  1862.  Official  Report  of  the 
Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce,  p.  19. 

t  Annual  Statement  of  the  Commerce  of  Cincinnati  in  1860.  Official  Report 
of  the  Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce,  p.  19. 

25 


*l 


become,  that  large  quantities  are  now  made  and  sold,  which  a  few 
years  ago  could  not  have  found  customers  save  at  a  loss." 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  clothing  industry  for  the  decade 
1890-1900  is  the  increase  in  the  amount  of  business  done  and  the 
lack  of  a  proportionate  increase  in  profits.  This  is  due  in  a  large 
measure,  as  official  reports  point  out,  to  the  lower  prices  which 
were  received  for  a  much  better  grade  of  product  than  had  been 
put  out  in  previous  years.  In  1886,  mention  is  made  of  the  active 
competition  between  the  factory  and  the  custom  industries  which 
previous  to  this  time  had  catered  to  wholly  different  classes  of 
customers.  The  same  report  also  makes  the  first  mention  of  the 
effect  of  machinery.  "Enterprise,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  busi- 
ness, ample  capital,  and  the  marvelous  march  of  labor-saving 
machinery  have  been,  throughout  the  change  and  are  still,  making 
their  valuable  contributions  to  the  success  of  this  important  de- 
partment of  production  in  this  city."* 

Women's  clothing  as  a  branch  of  the  industry  is  reported 
officially  for  the  first  time  in  1889-90.  For  the  succeeding  years, 
women's  clothing  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  furnishing  goods, 
the  two  representing  approximately  $5,000,000  per  year.f  In  1902, 
official  reports  separate  men's  and  women's  clothing  as  follows : 
"Clothing  made  for  men — factory  product  representing  $11,951,000. 
For  women's  wear  the  factory  product  represented  $2,075,000,  and 
dressmaking  additionally  $583,000."  J 

A  new  phase  in  the  history  of  the  clothing  industry  in  Cincinnati 
is  reported  in  the  records  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  for  1911: 
"With  a  long  established  reputation  for  medium  price  goods,  the 
trade  has  been  going  through  a  process  of  evolution.  While  some 
of  the  older  firms  have  retired  from  the  field,  the  tendency  of 
those  remaining  has  been  to  turn  over  the  business  to  the  younger 
generation,  the  elders  assuming  an  advisory  position.  There  has 
been  a  marked  disposition  to  make  higher-priced  lines  and  to  spec- 
ialize in  styles.  Studies  have  been  made  of  localities  and  character- 
istics of  the  people  with  a  view  of  meeting  their  desires  in  the 
ready-to-wear  line,  thus  coming  into  more  direct  competition  with 
the  merchant  tailors.  A  conservative  estimate  of  the  amount  of 
business  done  in  this  line  in  1911  is  $4,500,000,  Cincinnati  ranking 
third  in  the  United  States,  Chicago  and  New  York  alone  leading."  § 

The  effect  of  this  reorganization  of  the  trade  is  reported  again 
for  the  next  year  as  follows:  "Rather  unsatisfactory  conditions 
prevail  in  the  clothing  business  owing  to  the  old-time  manufac- 
turers not  having  as  yet  adjusted  themselves  to  the  new  conditions 
growing  out  of  the  development  of  the  'book*  or  'tailor-to-the-trade' 

*  Thirty-ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce,  1886-87. 
Page  151. 

t  Forty-second  Annual  Report  of  the  Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce,  1889-90. 
Page  180. 

t  Forty-third  Annual  Report  of  the  Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce,  1890-91. 
Page  96. 

§  Sixty-third  Annual  Report  of  the  Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce,  1911. 
Page  80. 

26 


method.  Two  distinct  plans  of  manufacturing  are  therefore  carried 
out,  that  of  manufacturing  for  stock,  and  the  book  business,  in  which 
each  suit  is  made  up  as  ordered.  In  the  latter  line  reports  are  very 
optimistic,  and  good  increases  are  reported,  as  high  as  12%.  There 
has  also  been  a  general  increase  in  production,  owing  to  a  number 
of  the  older  firms  having  put  in  book  departments.  In  the  ready- 
to-wear  line,  however,  decreases  are  reported,  as  high  as  12%%.  A 
feeling  of  uncertainty  exists  as  to  whether  the  new  method  should 
be  adopted,  or  an  effort  put  forth  to  develop  the  old  system. 
Prices  and  materials  are  generally  higher.  The  eight-hour  laws 
affecting  women  had  a  tendency  to  increase  the  cost  of  labor."* 

The  history  of  the  industry,  as  briefly  traced  in  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce  reports,  shows  a  series  of  fluctuations  due  to  external 
causes.  In  two  reports,  climatic  conditions  affected  the  sale;  in 
the  winters  of  1881-82  and  again  in  1913  floods  are  mentioned  as 
affecting  trade.  Tariff  on  wool  is  also  mentioned  as  a  cause  for 
fluctuation  and  as  far  back  in  the  history  as  1880  labor  disputes 
are  mentioned.  Special  branches  of  the  industry,  such  as  shirts, 
overalls,  and  neckwear,  are  in  no  instance  mentioned  separately 
in  the  official  reports,  except  as  furnishings.  This  is  unfortunate 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  history  of  the  trades,  for  there  is  no 
doubt  that  these  industries  have  passed  through  periods  of  develop- 
ment equally  interesting  and  illuminating. 

The  clothing  industry  has  been  developed  through  all  the  stages 
of  manufacture,  from  that  of  hand  work,  through  the  period  of  foot- 
power  sewing  machines  and  simpler  methods  of  production,  to  the 
stage  of  electric,  power-driven  sewing  machines,  adjusted  for  the 
most  accurate  work,  and  special  machines  which  do  complicated 
processes.  The  clothing  industry  differs  from  the  light-weight 
garment  industries  in  that,  with  the  exception  of  shirts,  these 
branches  of  garment-making  have  to  a  great  extent  been  developed 
as  factory  industries  since  the  electric  power  sewing-machines  have 
come  into  use.  This  fact  probably  accounts  for  a  more  marked 
division  in  the  methods  of  production  between  custom  tailoring  and 
the  manufacture  of  ready-to-wear  clothing.  The  former  still  re- 
tains some  of  the  methods  and  practices  peculiar  to  the  more  prim- 
itive stages  of  production  while  the  latter  is  comparatively  free 
from  the  lingering  remnants  of  hand  work  and  its  attendant  con- 
ditions. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Present  Organization  of  the  Cincinnati  Garment  Industries. 

The  clothing  trade  includes  three 'distinct  lines  of  manufacture: 
(1)  The  tailor-to-trade  product — high-grade  clothing  made  to  in- 
dividual orders  by  methods  which  combine  those  used  by  custom 
tailors  and  those  used  by  the  factory ;  (2)  the  clothing  trade — ready- 
to-wear  clothing  for  men  and  boys,  made  in  quantity  and  to  stock 
sizes  only;  and  (3)  uniforms  for  trainmen,  policemen,  postmen,  and 
porters,  and  regalia  for  lodges  and  other  organizations. 

*  Sixty- fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce,  1912, 
Page  86. 

27 


The  hat  and  cap  industry  is  also  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  sewing 
industries  in  Cincinnati.  Cist  mentions  it  as  an  important  industry 
in  1859  and  reports  "7  cap  manufacturers  employing  160  hands  and 
making  a  product  of  $120,000."$  For  1914,  7  hat  and  cap  factories 
were  reported  as  employing.  941  workers  and  producing  hats  and 
caps  of  about  the  same  value  as  quoted  for  1859.  This  amount,  it 
should  be  noted,  represents  a  larger  output  than  in  former  years 
when  the  price  per  hat  was  considerably  larger. 

The  shirt  industry  and  the  overall  industry,  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  number  of  workers  employed,  rank  next  to  clothing  in  im- 
portance. Seven  shirt  factories  in  December,  1913,  reported  1,192 
employees,  or  approximately  one-third  the  number  employed  in 
the  clothing  trade,  and  five  overall  factories  reported  912  employees. 
The  product  of  these  industries  is  practically  standardized  and  the 
demand  is  so  nearly  constant  that  they  are  called  all-year-round 
industries. 

Women's  wear  industries,  making  dresses,  waists,  kimonos, 
wrappers,  aprons,  and  under  muslins,  are  small  and  scattered  as 
compared  to  the  other  garment  industries,  but  they  are  reported  to 
be  growing.  These  industries  have  sprung  into  existence  in  the 
last  ten  years,  hence  records  of  the  size  of  the  industry  and  the 
value  of  the  product  are  few. 

Men's  neckwear  is  also  manufactured  extensively.  Two  large 
factories  make  a  large  amount  of  staple  and  fine  neckwear. 

The  straw  hat  industry  is  not  large  and  is  a  part  of  the  whole- 
sale millinery  industry. 

Two  distinct  groups  of  manufacturers  are  engaged  in  the  men's 
clothing  industries  of  Cincinnati :  (1)  the  manufacturer  or  the  cloth- 
ing house  and  (2)  the  contractor.  At  one  time  the  clothing  house 
limited  its  part  of  the  work  to  financing  the  industry,  buying  the 
goods,  designing  and  cutting  the  garments,  and  selling  the  finished 
product.  The  contractor  made  the  garments  at  contract  price  in 
a  shop  which  he  owned  and  operated  entirely  as  his  own  business. 
These  contracting  shops  still  exist  in  Cincinnati,  Newport,  Coving- 
ton,  Mt.  Healthy,  and  other  suburbs  of  Cincinnati,  but  few  clothing 
houses  now  depend  wholly  upon  them  to  make  the  product.  Of  the 
$19,887,790  worth  of  men's  and  women's  clothing  made  in  1909, 
$1,543,629  were  paid  for  contract  work.* 

The  contracting  system  within  the  factory  itself  is  used  exten- 
sively. Where  this  custom  prevails,  the  factory  provides  the  space 
and  the  equipment,  while  the  contractor,  acting  in  the  capacity  of 
foreman,  contracts  with  the  firm  for  the  work  to  be  done.  Persons 
employed  in  work  rooms  managed  under  this  arrangement  are 
chosen  by  the  contractor,  who  is  the  employer.  In  some  factories, 
the  firm  reserves  the  right  to  pass  judgment  upon  the  dismissal  of 
employees,  but  as  a  rule  the  contractors  are  wholly  responsible  for 
the  employment  and  dismissal  of  employees  and  for  the  wages 
and  piece  rates  paid. 

*  United  States  Census  Report  for  1910,  Vol.  IX,  Page  991. 
t  Cist:     Cincinnati  in  1859.     Page  268. 

28 


Employees  under  the  contractor  in  the  factories  are  paid  the 
union  scale  if  it  is  a  union  shop,  or  the  scale  set  by  the  contractor 
if  it  is  a  non-union  shop.  In  contract  shops,  except  where  the 
union  rates  prevail,  the  wages  paid  to  workers  are  frequently  lower 
than  the  factory  scale.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  small  shop 
which  employs  girls  from  the  neighborhood.  Because  they  live 
near  their  places  of  employment  and  are  not  called  upon  to  pay 
carfare  or  buy  luncheon,  or  to  "dress  fancy",  as  one  man  expressed 
it,  the  wages  paid  these  girls  are  usually  less  than  those  paid  to  girls 
who  work  in  the  downtown  factories.  The  difference  is  about  the 
equivalent  of  these  expenses.  One  contractor,  in  speaking  of  this 
in  an  interview,  remarked,  "My  girls  don't  make  much  less  than 
they  would  downtown  and  here  they  are  near  home.'* 

Some  of  the  contract  shops  are  in  the  homes  of  the  owners,  and 
frequently  in  small  buildings  erected  for  the  purpose  on  the  prem- 
ises of  the  contractor.  Though  these  contract  shops  are  in  some 
cases  rated  as  factories  and  subject  to  the  same  regulations,  they 
are  not  placarded  as  are  the  regular  factories  and  are  therefore 
difficult  to  locate.  The  larger  contracting  shops  employ  from  twen- 
ty to  fifty  or  more  persons ;  the  smaller  ones  may  employ  not  more 
than  four  or  five  persons.  Pants  and  vests  are  made  almost  ex- 
clusively in  these  shops,  though  a  few  shops  which  make  ready-to- 
wear  coats  are  found.  One  shop  seldom  makes  more  than  one  type 
of  garment,  hence  they  are  known  as  pants-shops,  vest-shops,  and 
coat-shops.  Several  of  the  contract  shops  visited  are  owned  and 
operated  by  women. 

The  contract  shop  and  the  manufacture  of  garments  in  the 
home  dates  back  more  than  half  a  century.  Cist  says  in  his  "Cin- 
cinnati in  1859",  in  discussing  the  effect  of  the  recently  invented 
sewing  machine,  that  there  were  "more  than  4,000  women  in  this 
city  and  in  Covington  and  Newport,  who  worked  at  their  own 
homes  for  these  establishments." 

These  contract  shops,  which  are  little  affected  by  factory  in- 
spection and  regulation,  constitute  one  of  the  worst  features  of  the 
clothing  industries.  For  the  sake  of  right  standards  of  work  and 
working  conditions,  regulation  of  work,  employment,  wages,  and 
piece  rates,  the  industry  supported  by  public  opinion  should  seek 
to  eliminate  the  unsanitary,  uninspected,  unplacarded  contract  shop 
and  home  workshop. 

An  organization  of  clothing  manufacturers  has  been  in  existence 
in  Cincinnati  for  a  number  of  years,  but,  as  far  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained, it  has  done  little  active  co-operative  work  of  the  sort  done 
by  Manufacturers'  Associations  in  other  cities. 

As  a  result  of  conferences  held  in  connection  with  this  study 
of  the  garment-making  industries,  a  manufacturers*  association 
with  a  membership  representing  the  ten  big  branches  of  the  indus- 
try has  been  organized.  This  organization,  which  is  affiliated  with 
the  Cincinnati  Chamber  of  Commerce,  has  appointed  an  advisory 
committee  to  co-operate  with  the  public  school  authorities  in  estab- 
lishing the  training  courses  for  the  garment  workers. 

20 


The  garment  workers  are  organized  in  local  unions  represent- 
ing the  various  lines  of  work  in  which  they  are  engaged.  Local  99, 
the  overall  workers,  has  a  membership  of  750  men  and  women  ;  Loc- 
al 154,  women  garment  workers,  has  a  membership  of  400  women; 
Local  188,  pressers  and  tailors,  has  a  membership  of  200  men; 
Local  100,  cutters,  has  a  membership  of  175  men;  Local  122,  gar- 
ment workers,  has  a  membership  of  150  men  and  women;  Local  77, 
garment  workers,  has  a  membership  of  125  men  and  women; 
Locals  129  and  123  each  have  a  membership  of  75  men  and  women; 
Local  151,  shirt-makers,  has  a  membership  of  35  persons;  and 
Local  91,  buttonhole-makers,  has  a  membership  of  35  persons. 
The  hat  and  cap,  neckwear  and  straw  sewing  workers  are  not 
organized. 

The  garment  industries  have  been  in  somewhat  unsettled  con- 
dition since  the  strike  of  1912.  This  strike  came  at  the  height  of 
the  season  when  the  demand  for  product  was  heaviest.  Both  or- 
ganized labor  and  the  manufacturers  report  a  considerable  loss  in 
trade  resulting  from  it.  Following  close  upon  this  came  the  busi- 
ness depression  due  to  the  war  in  Europe,  which  affected  the  gar- 
ment industries  in  Cincinnati  as  in  other  cities.  Within  the  past 
year  production  has  increased  slightly  and  demand  for  workers  has 
increased  also.  The  most  encouraging  demand  from  the  standpoint 
of  education  and  returns  to  the  work,  is  in  the  demand  for  the 
trained  all-round  workers.  It  is  toward  this  problem  that  the 
present  study  is  particularly  directed. 

Women  share  largely  in  Cincinnati's  leading  occupations.  Ac- 
cording to  the  United  States  Census  of  1910,  Cincinnati  is  pre- 
eminently an  industrial  city.  Shops  and  factories  employ  44  per 
cent  of  its  entire  working  population.  In  this  group  of  industrial 
workers,  numbering  75,852  persons,  there  are  16,605  women,  who 
compose  nearly  one-third  of  all  the  women  in  gainful  employment 
in  the  city. 

The  number  of  men  and  women  in  the  nine  occupational  groups 
adopted  by  the  census  is  given  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  I. 

Number  of  Men  and  Women  in  Specified  Occupations  in 
Cincinnati.* 


OCCUPATIONAL  GROUP 

Men 

Women 

Total 

Agriculture,  Forestry,  and  Animal  Husbandry  
Extraction  of  Minerals  .  . 

1,325 
100 

114 

1,439 
100 

Manufacturing  and  Mechanical  Pursuits  

59,247 

16,605 

75852 

Transportation  

13,739 

833 

14572 

Trade  

21,462 

4,680 

26442 

Public  Service       .  . 

2,962 

11 

2973 

Professional  Service.  .  . 

5,293 

3,578 

8871 

Domestic  and  Personal  Service                    

9,598 

16,720 

26,318 

Clerical  Occupations  

10.541 

5,565 

16,106 

TOTAL  

124,267 

48,106 

172,373 

•Compiled  from  U.  S.  Census,  Vol.  IV,  1910. 

80 


Occupation  Statistics,  pp.  152-165. 


The  largest  groups  of  women  workers  engaged  in  manufac- 
turing employments  are  found  in  relatively  few  of  the  local  indus- 
tries. The  manufacture  of  men's  and  women's  clothing  employs 
the  largest  group.  In  Table  II,  the  distribution  of  women  workers 
in  the  industries  of  Cincinnati  can  be  seen. 

TABLE  II. 

Distribution  of  Men,  Women,  and  Children  in  16  Cincinnati 

Industries.! 


INDUSTRY 

Number  of  Es- 

Total Number 
of 

Numbe 
Earners 

r  Wage 
over  16 

Number 

tablishments 

Wage  Earners 

Men 

Women 

under  16 

1.    Bags,  paper  

5 

299 

153 

128 

18 

2.     Boots  and  Shoes  
3.    Boxes,  Cigar  
4.    Boxes,     fancy     and 
paper  
5.     Bread  and  Bakery  .  . 
6     Clothing  men's  .  . 

32 

8 

15 

187 
183 

7,989 
222 

669 
1,340 
5,718 

4,514 
109 

162 
1,029 
1,870 

3,132 
107 

425 
296 
3,654 

343 
6 

82 
15 
194 

7.     Clothing,  women's.  . 
8.    Coffee  and  Spices  .  .  . 
9.     Confectionery  
10.     Flags,banners,regalia 
11.     Hats  and  Caps  
12.    Hosiery    and     Knit 
Goods             .... 

26 
8 
22 
8 
12 

6 

1,325 
221 
771 
403 
260 

220 

444 
115 
322 
118 
102 

31 

481 
106 
401 
279 
145 

176 

40 
0 
48 
6 
13 

13 

13.     Millinery  

11 

428 

42 

378 

8 

14.     Printing,    Publishing 
15.     Soap  

280 
16 

3,866 
491 

3,070 
253 

.    723 
225 

73 
13 

16.    Tobacco  

208 

2,526 

937 

1,584 

5 

TOTAL  

1,027 

26,748 

13,271 

12,600 

877 

These  figures,  which  show  2,314  men  and  4,495  women  engaged 
in  industries  making  men's  and  women's  clothing,  represent  a  large 
proportion  but  not  the  total  number  of  persons  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  wearing  apparel  in  Cincinnati.  Hats  and  caps, 
regalia,  and  millinery  increase  the  totals  to  2,576  men  and  5,297 
women.  Besides  these,  there  are  4,506  dressmakers  and  seam- 
stresses not  at  work  in  factories.*  Garment-making,  therefore, 
represents  the  largest  source  of  paid  employment  for  women  in 
Cincinnati.  From  the  standpoint  of  numbers  employed,  the  sewing 
industries  are  of  considerable  importance. 

Garment  manufacture  is  not  only  carried  on  within  the  metro- 
politan district  of  Cincinnati,  which  includes  the  city  proper,  Cov- 
ington,  Newport,  and  Norwood,  but  also  in  a  number  of  small 
suburban  towns  for  which  Cincinnati  is  the  center.  The  number 
of  establishments  for  the  entire  metropolitan  district  is  327  and  the 
number  of  employees,  10,033.  Many  hundreds  of  workers  from 
these  towns  are  employed  in  the  factories  of  Cincinnati  and  in  the 
contract  shops  which  contribute  to  these  factories. 

*  U.  S.  Census,  1910,  Vol.  IV,  p.  548.  At  the  time  when  the  census  was  taken, 
the  classification  of  garment-making  and  dress-making  did  not  draw  a  very  sharp 
line  between  the  two,  so  that  it  is  probable  that  many  of  the  dressmakers  returned 
in  this  group  were  really  employed  in  factories  or  semi-factories. 

t  Compiled  from  U.  S.  Census,  1910,  Vol.  IX,  Manufactures,  pp.  990-993. 

31 


It  should  further  be  noted  that  the  number  of  garment-workers 
quoted  above  (2,314  men  and  4,495  women)  is  based  on  the  census 
figures  for  1909.  The  Industrial  Commission  of  Ohio  for  the  year 
1914  reports  2,251  men  and  6,137  women  employees  in  the  garment 
industries  of  Cincinnati  proper.  A  comparison  of  the  figures  for 
1909  with  those  for  1914  shows  marked  increases  in  the  number  of 
women  garment-makers  in  the  city.  Figures  for  the  entire  metro- 
politan district  are  not  available. 

The  importance  of  these  industries  as  a  source  of  income  to  the 
workers  is  also  shown  in  the  amount  of  money  paid  to  the  wage- 
earners  in  the  clothing  industries.  Table  III  shows  the  relative 
importance  of  the  capital  invested,  wages  paid  to  workers,  and  value 
of  the  products  of  the  industries  in  which  the  women  of  Cincinnati 
are  engaged. 

TABLE  III. 

Amount  of  Capital  and  Wages  and  Value  of  Product  in  Sixteen 
Cincinnati  Industries  Employing  Women.* 


?! 

,jQ     '     *1? 

8,     g 

INDUSTRY 

'•*  5 

a-s? 

"83  3 

'§• 

H 

"eii 

1  .* 

0          g) 

a    * 

6 

|1 

H     £ 

1.    Bags,  paper  

5 

299 

$129,254 

$673,221 

$1,038,250 

2.    Boots  and  Shoes  

32 

7,989 

3,517,986 

7,656,352 

814,998,672 

3     Boxes  cigars 

8 

222 

8,609 

212,835 

347  066 

4.     Boxes,  fancy  and  paper.  .  . 

15 

699 

184,858 

442,245 

679  170 

5.     Bread  and  Bakery. 

187 

1,340 

723094 

2,652,881 

5  102  593 

6.     Clothing,  Men's  

183 

5,718 

2,512,386 

10,211,774 

16,974,928 

7.     Clothing,  Women's  

26 

1,325 

618,775 

1,229,502 

2,912,862 

8.     Coffee  and  Spice-Roasting  and 

Grinding 

8 

221 

91,271 

1,083  406 

2110024 

9.     Confectionery 

22 

771 

279,006 

970  132 

2  029  075 

10.     Flags,  banners,  regalia  

8 

403 

162,418 

668,178 

888  361 

11.     Hats  and  Caps  

12 

260 

112,280 

263,776 

532,325 

12.     Hosiery  and  Knit  Goods  

6 

220 

84,479 

426,362 

441,745 

13     Millinery 

11 

428 

120,381 

136  086 

546  648 

14.     Printing  and  Publishing 

280 

3,866 

2,479,852 

8,450,749 

11  519  118 

15.     Soap.  . 

16 

491 

193,042 

1,620,682 

2,352  006 

16.    Tobacco  

208 

2,526 

988,422 

2,363,702 

4,153  232 

TOTAL.  . 

1.027 

26,748 

$12,286,113 

$39,061,883 

$66,686,075 

From  Table  III,  we  see  that  209  establishments  engaged  in 
making  men's  and  women's  clothing  paid  wages  amounting  to 
$3,131,161  in  1909.  For  1914,  the  State  Industrial  Commission  of 
Ohio  reports  for  164  garment-factories  the  amount  of  wages  paid 
as  $3,541,972.39.  A  not  inconsiderable  portion  of  this  sum  repre- 
sents the  sole  income  and  means  of  support  of  thousands  of  Cin- 
cinnati's working  women. 

The  women  garment  workers  of  Cincinnati  are  mainly  of  native 
birth,  or  are  American  born  of  foreign  parentage.  The  United 
States  Census  reports  for  1910  give  3,806  native  workers  and  1,775 

'Compiled  from  U.  S.  Census,  1910,  Vol.  IX,  Manufactures,  pp.  990-993 

89 


foreign  workers  employed  in  the  garment  industries.  Among  the 
men  employed,  those  of  foreign  birth  outnumber  those  of  native 
birth,  the  former  group  being  1,367  and  the  latter,  1,096.  Among 
the  women  employees,  the  case  is  reversed.  There  are  2,710  native 
born  workers  to  408  foreign-born;  that  is  87  per  cent  of  the  3,118 
women  garment  makers  in  the  city  were  born  in  this  country. 

In  the  group  of  185  women  workers  interviewed  for  this  report, 
a  similar  proportion  of  native  and  foreign  workers  was  found. 
Eighty-three  per  cent  of  this  group  were  native  born  and  two-thirds 
of  the  group  were  born  in  Cincinnati.  According  to  our  reports, 
123  gave  Cincinnati  as  their  birthplace ;  30,  other  parts  of  the  United 
States,  chiefly  Ohio,  Kentucky  and  Indiana;  7,  Germany;  11,  Russia; 
5,  Syria;  5,  Austria-Hungary;  2,  England;  and  2  made  no  report. 

Twenty  establishments,  representing  the  large  factories  of  the 
city,  reported  upon  the  question  of  nativity  of  workers  for  this 
study.  These  reports  also  show  a  strong  predominance  of  the 
native-born  among  the  workers.  Among  the  foreign  nationalities, 
Italians,  Russians,  Germans,  and  Hungarians,  are  mentioned.  The 
workers  already  engaged  in  the  industry  include,  therefore,  a  certain 
group  who  learned  the  trade  in  a  foreign  country. 

There  is  little  doub.t  that  the  foreign  workers,  especially  those 
of  middle  age,  have  brought  to  the  industry  a  large  measure  of 
skill  and  actual  training  for  the  work  of  sewing  trades  which  they 
acquired  a  quarter  of  a  century  or  more  ago  by  the  old  apprentice 
system.  This  kind  of  trade  preparation  is  almost  wholly  lacking 
in  the  training  and  education  of  the  young  people  of  today.  Con- 
sequently, it  is  about  these  young  people  that  the  most  insistent 
complaints  of  incompetency  and  lack  of  earnestness  are  today  being 
heard. 

The  education  received  before  going  to  work  is  indicated  in  part 
by  the  age  at  which  the  worker  left  school  and  in  part  by  the  grade 
completed.  Of  the  185  women  interviewed,  only  29,  or  15  per  cent, 
had  remained  in  school  after  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  only  5,  or 
2.7  per  cent,  were  positively  reported  as  having  remained  in  school 
after  sixteen  years  of  age.  Of  the  ten  girls  who  had  left  school 
at  16  or  over,  three  had  entered  the  industry  since  the  compulsory 
school  law  of  1913  went  into  effect.  There  were  five  Syrian 
women  who  had  never  gone  to  school.  According  to  the  age  of 
leaving  school,  the  group  was  divided  thus: 

5  had  never  gone  to  school. 

2  had  left  school  at  11  years  of  age. 


25    " 

| 

12 

59    "       " 

I 

13 

61    " 

I 

14 

19    "       " 

( 

15 

5    " 

f 

16 

5    " 

f 

16-19 

4  made  no  report. 

185  total. 


83 


The  limited  education  and  training  of  this  group  is  further  in- 
dicated by  the  following  distribution  according  to  the  grade  com- 
pleted : 

5  had  not  gone  to  school. 
2  had  completed  the  3rd  grade. 
11     "  "  "     4th 

34    "  "  "      5th 

54    "  "  "     6th 

27    "  "  "     7th 

33    "  "     8th 

5  had  attended  High  School. 
10  had  attended  foreign    schools    and    evening    schools 

in  Cincinnati. 
4  gave  no  report. 


185  total 

The  foregoing  figures,  showing  that  85  per  cent  of  the  group 
had  left  school  at  fourteen  or  younger  and  that  at  least  89  per  cent 
of  them  had  not  gone  beyond  the  8th  grade,  indicate  that  the  girls 
who  enter  the  garment  trades  are  not  to  any  extent  those  who 
attend  high  school.  They  represent  what  someone  has  called  the 
"go-to-work  group." 

Only  42  had  had  further  education  after  going  to  work.  The 
courses  which  they  had  pursued  were  as  follows:  20  had  taken 
general  academic  courses ;  10  had  taken  commercial  courses ;  8  had 
taken  cooking  and  sewing  courses ;  and  4  did  not  report  the  studies 
pursued.  The  foreign  women  gave  as  a  reason  for  studying  the 
desire  to  learn  English;  but  the  common  reply  to  the  question  as 
to  the  purpose  for  taking  the  course  was,  "More  education/*  The 
general  courses  were  taken  in  the  public  evening  schools ;  the  com- 
mercial courses,  with  two  exceptions,  were  taken  in  private  busi- 
ness colleges  and  work  in  the  factory  was  given  up  for  a  time. 
In  two  cases,  the  purpose  was  for  a  change  of  occupation. 

All  of  the  women  interviewed  were  asked  their  opinion  of  the 
value  of  an  education  in  making  a  success  of  work  in  the  garment 
trades.  Of  the  185  questioned,  51  said  that  education  does  not 
contribute  to  success  nor  does  it  benefit  the  worker;  124  replied 
in  favor  of  education,  giving  such  replies  as,  "Everybody  needs 
education,"  "It  helps  in  every  way,"  "Education  helps  one  to  meet 
people ;"  10  gave  either  no  reply  or  evasive  replies. 

Both  the  negative  and  the  positive  answers  show  little  belief 
in  education  as  an  asset  in  the  trade.  It  seems  to  be  considered  as 
having  a  social  rather  than  a  business  value.  But,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  these  workers  have  so  little  education,  they  can  scarcely  be 
able  to  judge  of  its  results.  The  same  question  put  to  employers 
and  foremen  brought  more  hopeful  replies.  Few  employers  con- 
sider that  education  has  no  bearing  on  productive  work.  Though 
they  admit  that  they  do  not  see  any  direct,  specific  use  for  the 
subject-matter  learned  in  school,  they  declare  that  the  need  for  a 
higher  grade  of  general  intelligence  for  the  rank  and  file  of  their 

84 


workers  is  imperative.  Ignorance,  failure  to  understand,  and  in- 
ability to  think  out  the  problems  that  arise  in  the  course  of  the 
day's  work  react  upon  the  skill  of  the  workers  and  inevitably  upon 
the  quality  of  the  product.  Hence  education  becomes  a  business 
matter  for  the  worker  as  well  as  for  the  industry. 

The  Compulsory  Education  Law  of  Ohio,  adopted  in  1913,  made 
school  attendance  obligatory  for  boys  until  15  years  of  age  and  for 
girls  until  16  years  of  age.  The  minimum  school  requirement  for 
boys  is  the  ability  to  pass  the  sixth-grade  test  and  for  girls,  the 
seventh-grade  test.  When  the  United  States  Census  of  1900  was 
taken,  it  reported  3,577  boys  and  2,626  girls  under  16  years  of  age 
at  work  in  Cincinnati.  Of  these,  1,826  boys  and  1,557  girls  were 
engaged  in  manufacturing  pursuits ;  and,  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained from  these  figures,  64  boys  and  319  girls  under  16  years  of 
age  were  employed  in  the  garment  trades  at  that  time.* 

The  United  States  Census  for  1909  reported  621  boys  and  858 
girls  under  16  employed  in  all  Cincinnati  industries.  Of  these,  37 
boys  and  214  girls  were  engaged  in  the  industries  making  men's 
and  women's  clothing.f 

For  the  year  ending  December  31st,  1914,  the  Industrial  Com- 
mission of  Ohio  reported  61  boys  and  241  girls  under  18  years  of  age 
at  work  in  the  garment  factories  of  Cincinnati.  Since  boys  under 
15  and  girls  under  16  no  longer  employed,  these  figures  repre- 
sent the  number  of  boys  between  15  and  18  and  the  number  of 
girls  between  16  and  18  in  the  garment  trades.  It  shows  that  the 
number  of  girls  under  18  now  employed  is  little  larger  than  the 
number  of  girls  under  16  who  were  employed  under  the  old  law. 
As  the  compulsory  education  law  is  thus  extended  so  far  as  to  with- 
draw from  wage-earning  large  groups  of  persons  who  would 
otherwise  go  to  work,  it  becomes  imperative  for  the  public  school 
to  train  these  young  persons  in  such  a  way  that  their  labor  will 
have  a  greater  value  when  they  at  length  carry  it  into  the  market. 

The  garment  industries  have  not  employed  many  workers  under 
18  years  of  age  for  several  years.  Before  the  school  law  of  1913 
raised  the  attendance  age,  the  employers  had  already  committed 
themselves  to  the  policy  of  employing  no  workers  under  16  years 
of  age;  hence  the  problem  of  the  young  worker  in  the  garment 
industry  remained  practically  unchanged.  The  proportion  of  work- 
ers in  the  industry  under  20  years  of  age  is  relatively  small.  Of 
the  185  workers  interviewed  for  this  study,  only  22  were  under  20 
years  of  age.  Table  IV  gives  the  age  of  185  women  workers  who 
reported : 


*  U.  S.  Census,  1900;  Occupations,  pp.  522-526. 

t  U.  S.  Census,  1910;  Vol.  IX,  Manufacturers,  p.  990.  This  total  number  of 
251  children  under  16  is  based  on  a  representative  day;  the  total  of  234  children 
in  Table  II,  p.  31,  is  based  on  average  numbers. 


85 


TABLE  IV. 

Age  of  Women  Garment  Workers. 

Age  Group                         No.  of  Persons  Per  Cent 

No  report 15  8 

16  to  19  years 22  12 

20  to  25  years 68  37 

26  to  30  years 40  22 

31  to  35  years 19  10 

36  to  40  years 11  6 

40  years  and  over ,          10  5 


Total 185  100 

The  figures  indicate  that  59  per  cent  of  the  women  workers 
are  between  20  and  30  years  of  age;  and  judging  from  the  large 
groups  of  workers  seen  at  work  in  the  factories,  these  figures  are 
representative  for  the  industry.  This  is  due  in  part  to  restrictions 
put  upon  the  employment  of  workers  under  18  years  of  age  and 
in  part  to  the  demand  for  trained  workers.  These  figures  give 
striking  evidence  to  the  fact  that  there  are  very  few  young  people 
in  the  factories  as  learners. 

The  demand  for  trained  workers  is  urgent.  This  was  the  opin- 
ion of  manufacturers  and  organized  labor  alike.  Some  manufac- 
turers consider  that  the  industry  cannot  continue  to  run  satisfac- 
torily with  less  than  40  per  cent  of  trained  all-round  workers. 
Probably  not  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the  workers  in  the  industry 
today  can  be  classed  as  skilled  workers.  Organized  labor  estimates 
the  demand  for  new  workers  in  the  industry  in  Cincinnati  to  be 
approximately  three  hundred  per  year,  and  favors  trade-preparatory 
courses  for  prospective  workers  provided  that  the  number  trained 
does  not  exceed  the  normal  demand  and  that  the  training  given  is 
thorough.  This  estimate  of  the  number  of  workers  needed  in  the 
industry  is  based  upon  the  increase  in  the  volume  of  business  and 
the  normal  decrease  in  the  number  of  workers  who  leave  the 
industry  each  year  for  various  reasons. 

An  encouraging  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  Cincinnati  manufac- 
turers toward  trained  workers  is  rapidly  developing.  Up  to  the 
present  time,  the  majority  of  employees  in  the  garment  trades  have 
been  men  and  women  whose  training  and  experience  were  gained 
under  the  old  system  of  apprenticeship ;  or,  they  had  worked  under 
trade  conditions  similar  to  the  apprenticeship  system  which  pro- 
vided an  all-round  experience  that  made  for  trade-training  and  the 
development  of  craftsmanship.  Although  many  of  these  persons 
now  work  under  the  section  system,  they  bring  to  their  work  an 
all-round  intelligence  about  the  single  task  they  are  performing 
that  results  in  a  higher  grade  of  work  than  can  possibly  be  attained 
by  the  younger  generation  of  workers  who  are  now  learning  entirely 
under  the  section  system  without  any  all-round  experience.  Manu- 
facturers who  once  honestly  believed  that  the  method  of  turning 
employees  into  section  workers  and  keeping  them  at  a  single 
operation  throughout  their  working  career  in  the  factory  made  for 
efficient  training  as  well  as  increased  profits,  are  now  acknowledg- 


ing  the  weakness  of  this  system.  Factory  foremen,  who  in  most  in- 
stances are  the  real  manufacturers  since  they  know  most  thorough- 
ly the  problems  of  making  marketable  product,  have  long  realized 
that  the  factory  must  ultimately  find  some  more  elastic  method  of 
training  than  the  section  system.  In  other  cities,  as  well  as  Cin- 
cinnati, the  problem  of  securing  all-round  workers  in  the  factory 
is  receiving  considerable  attention  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturers 
and  others  interested  in  the  garment  trades. 

One  factory  in  Cincinnati  is  trying  to  provide  such  all-round 
experience  and  training  for  a  limited  number  of  its  employees  by 
placing  them  successively  in  different  sections.  This  system  has 
also  been  introduced  in  factories  in  other  cities.  One  progressive 
clothing  factory  in  Cleveland  has  classified  and  graded  the  opera- 
tions according  to  the  complexity  of  the  work  and  the  skill  required 
in  handling  the  material  and  operating  the  machine.  In  this  fac- 
tory, workers  pass  from  one  operation  to  another  periodically  until 
all  the  operations  have  been  mastered.  This  method  increases  the 
range  of  processes  commanded  by  each  worker  and  develops  the 
all-round  craftsman. 

Training  the  all-round  worker  will  not  eliminate  the  use  of  the 
section  system  from  the  factory,  though  the  factory  employing 
all-round  workers  will  probably  modify  the  present  system  and 
offer  broader  experience  for  the  employees  who  desire  it  and  are 
capable  of  profiting  by  it. 

Under  present  conditions,  the  factory  which  employs  the  worker 
with  the  least  skill  and  intelligence  uses  the  most  minute  division 
of  labor  and  the  factory  which  employs  the  worker  with  the  great- 
est skill  and  intelligence  divides  the  work  among  fewer  operatives. 
There  is  still  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  which  method  is  cheaper. 
Some  manufacturers  say  that  the  greatest  sub-division  produces 
the  most  and  the  best  work,  and  the  greatest  profit.  Others  favor 
less  sub-division  because  in  their  opinion  it  reduces  the  number 
of  seconds  and  the  cost  of  inspection  and  supervision  and  thus 
increases  profits.  Some  sub-division  of  work  will  undoubtedly 
remain  as  specialization  makes  for  increased  output  and  higher 
grade  work. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Conditions  in  the  Garment  Industries. 
1.  Regularity  of  Work  and  Wages. 

Employment  is  seasonal  for  a  large  proportion  of  garment  workers. 
Other  things  being  equal,  the  greatest  fluctuation  of  employment  in 
the  garment  industries  is  found  in  those  branches  in  which  fashion 
plays  an  important  part  and  the  least  fluctuation  in  those  whose  product 
is  less  dependent  upon  fashion  or  is  of  a  staple  character.  Women's 
cloaks  and  suits,  dresses  and  waists,  and  men's  suits  represent  the  indus- 
tries most  dependent  upon  fashion,  though  these  make  a  conservative 
staple  product  as  well  as  the  ultrafashionable  product.  Men's  working 
clothes,  shirts  and  overalls,  and  women's  house  dresses  and  shirt-waists 
represent,  in  the  main,  the  staple  lines  of  garment  manufacture  in  which 
the  production  is  least  variable.  In  the  overall  and  shirt  industries  in 
Cincinnati,  employment  is  practically  constant  for  the  majority  of 
the  workers. 

87 


In  response  to  the  question  asked  of  the  manufacturers  as  to  the 
length  of  the  working  year,  the  twenty  firms  reporting  gave  their  answers 
in  two  ways: — (1)  by  approximations  in  terms  of  months  and  (2)  by  the 
numbers  of  employees  on  the  payroll  during  the  twelve  months  of  the  year. 

In  the  men's  clothing  industry,  the  slack  season  falls  at  the  end  of 
July;  in  the  cloak,  suit,  and  skirt  industry,  the  busy  seasons  are  virtu- 
ally the  same  as  in  the  clothing  industry;  the  neckwear  industry  has 
but  one  slack  season,  from  April  1st  to  May  15th;  the  women's  wear 
industry  in  Cincinnati,  exclusive  of  cloaks  and  suits,  make  in  the  main 
a  staple  product,  but  it  is  also  affected  by  seasonal  fluctuations.  Re- 
turns from  the  women's  wear  industry,  mainly  carried  on  in  small  fac- 
tories, are  not  as  definitely  stated  as  for  the  others  mentioned  above, 
but  as  nearly  as  can  be  determined,  the  slack  seasons  are  December 
and  July  and  August. 

The  reports  of  the  number  of  employees  for  each  calendar  month  of 
the  year  brought  nine  replies  from  manufacturers.  The  fluctuation  in 
numbers  is  seen  in  Table  V. 

TABLE  V. 

Monthly  Fluctuation  of  Wage-Earners  in  Nine  Cincinnati 
Garment-Making  Firms  in  1914. 


Firm 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

A 

120 

116 

116 

114 

120 

122 

122 

123 

120 

114 

116 

112 

B 

47 

53 

60 

64 

53 

50 

47 

45 

49 

56 

55 

50 

C 

760 

760 

760 

770 

710 

683 

633 

660 

660 

756 

755 

755 

D 

120 

121 

120 

110 

110 

120 

120 

120 

120 

110 

120 

120 

E 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

65 

F 

278 

285 

285 

295 

284 

284 

296 

313 

320 

330 

290 

273 

G 

43 

43 

43 

39 

38 

40 

43 

44 

42 

39 

38 

43 

H 

265 

291 

346 

353 

327 

253 

216 

245 

230 

252 

239 

198 

I 

225 

231 

236 

239 

244 

248 

240 

252 

251 

268 

264 

262 

TOTAL 

1923 

1965 

2031 

2049 

1951 

1865 

1782 

1867 

1857 

1990 

1942 

1888 

Though  the  minimum  number  of  workers  was  employed  for  only 
two  months  of  the  year  these  months  were  not  consecutive  and  indicate 
a  corresponding  irregularity  of  employment. 

From  the  figures  of  seven  firms,  reporting  on  the  number  of  men 
and  women  separately,  it  appears  that  the  major  group  of  women 
workers  was  subject  to  a  rather  greater  degree  of  fluctuation  than  the 
minor  group  of  men  workers.  The  comparision  of  men  and  women  em- 
ployed during  the  twelve  months  of  the  year  is  seen  in  Table  VI. 

TABLE  VI. 

Comparative  Monthly  Fluctuation  of  Men  and  Women  Workers  in 
Seven  Cincinnati  Garment-Making  Firms. 


Sex  of 
Workers 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Men  
Women  

401 
1214 

407 
1224 

402 
1240 

399 
1258 

397 
1189 

410 
1162 

403 
1120 

414 
1164 

419 
1166 

420 
1279 

402 
1263 

406 
1241 

TOTAL.  .  . 

1615 

1631 

1642 

1657 

1586 

1572 

1523 

1578 

1585 

1699 

1665 

1647 

Similar  information  collected  by  the  Industrial  Commission  of 
Ohio  for  the  same  period  of  time  shows  about  the  same  degree  of  fluctua- 
tion as  the  reports  made  to  the  Chamber  of  Commerce.  Table  VII 
gives  the  figures  as  collected  by  the  Commission. 

38 


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The  amount  of  fluctuation  indicated  by  these  tables  is  obviously 
less  than  popular  reports  would  lead  one  to  believe.  The  figures, 
however,  fail  to  show  an  important  feature  of  employment  which  serious- 
ly affects  the  earnings  of  the  workers,  namely,  the  short-time  day  during 
the  slack  season.  When  piece  work  is  not  sufficient  to  keep  workers 
employed  for  the  entire  day,  part-time  is  commonly  resorted  to  in  pre- 
ference to  a  reduction  of  the  working  force.  The  result  is  a  form  of 
partial  unemployment  for  the  many  instead  of  complete  unemployment 
for  the  few.  It  produces  an  irregularity  of  work  and  earnings  difficult 
to  estimate  exactly  but  none  the  less  real. 

There  are  four  important  factors  of  this  irregularity  which  can  only 
be  touched  upon  very  briefly  here.  They  are:  (1)  the  heavy  seasonal 
demand  for  clothing  due  to  climatic  changes;  (2)  the  equal  division  of 
work  among  workers  during  slack  seasons;  (3)  the  lack  of  efficient  fac- 
tory organization  in  the  industry  as  a  whole,  and  (4)  the  lack  of  know- 
ledge on  the  part  of  employers  as  to  the  effect  of  the  fluctuating  wage 
upon  the  worker's  yearly  earnings. 

(1)  The  heavy  seasonal  demand  for  clothing  is  an  inherent  difficulty 
in  this  industry.  It  is,  however,  a  fault  which  can  be  corrected,  as 
attempts  which  have  been  made  here  and  there  to  provide  work  to  sup- 
plement the  usual  product  already  show.  The  Palm  Beach  suits  which 
were  made  last  year  in  the  clothing  and  the  cloak,  suit  and  skirt  indus- 
tries helped  to  tide  these  trades  over  the  spring  and  summer.  Such 
methods  have  been  used  incidentally,  however,  and  cannot  be  said  to 
have  contributed  materially  to  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  fluctuation. 

The  systematic  dovetailing  of  occupation  is  a  proved  remedy  for 
much  of  the  existing  irregularity.  A  recent  report  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics*  discusses  the  problems  of  dovetailing  in 
occupations.  This  report  says,  "That  considerable  relief  from  the 
unemployment  prevalent  in  these  trades  has  been  secured  by  providing 
opportunities  for  the  systematic  dovetailing  of  occupations  in  some  of 
the  allied  branches  of  these  trades  can  be  seen  from  the  experience  of 

some  manufacturers  in  matters  of  dovetailing Dovetailing,  as  it 

was  found  in  the  establishments  referred  to,  consisted  in  utilizing  the 
existing  working  organization  of  these  establishments  during  the  dull 
seasons  of  the  year  for  the  manufacture  of  garments  of  a  relatively 
simpler  variety  than  the  line  ordinarily  manufactured  (petticoats,  in 
one  instance,  in  establishments  specializing  usually  on  dresses  and 
waists) ,  to  the  manufacture  of  which  a  garment  worker  of  average  exper- 
ience can  easily  adjust  himself  at  short  notice,  and  garments  that  can 
be  manufactured  in  considerable  quantities  regardless  of  their  seasonal 
demand;  that  is,  in  advance  of  sales." 

(2)  The  equal  division  of  work  during  slack  seasons,  which  organized 
labor  believes  to  be  just  and  toward  which  public  opinion  lends  its 
influence  through  its  insistence  upon  the  employer's  responsibility  for 
his  workers,  means  a  small  income  for  the  majority  of  the  workers 
throughout  the  dull  season.  The  seasonal  low  wage  very  materially 

*  Regularity  of  Employment  in  the  Women's  Ready-to-wear  Garment  Indus- 
tries—by Charles  H.  Winslow.  Bulletin  183,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  1916,  p.  9. 

40 


affects  the  average  earnings  for  the  year.  This  phase  of  short-pay  and 
insufficient  earnings  presents  a  serious  problem  which  the  industry 
must  work  out. 

(3)  The  lack  of  efficient  factory  organization  in  the  industry  as  a 
whole  renders  it  impossible  to  carry  on  work  without  interruption. 
This  lack  of  efficiency  is  a  remnant  of  the  home-shop  and  contract-shop 
in  which  manufacturing,  done  in  a  small  way,  was  considered  a  filling-in 
occupation,  and  as  such  did  not  require  careful  organization.     Under  pre- 
sent conditions,  factory  organization  which  provides  for  the  routing 
of  work,  that  is,  for  the  shifting  of  the  work,  at  regular  intervals  so  as  to 
keep  all  workers  busy  all  the  time  is  important.     A  number  of  factories 
have  worked  out  this  and  similar  problems  of  production  in  great  detail 
and  with  considerable  success.     On  the  other  hand,  some  factories  in 
the  city  are  plodding  along  under  a  slip-shod  system  of  management 
which  was  obsolete  a  decade  or  more  ago. 

(4)  Employers  do  not  seem  to  be  aware  of  the  extent  of  the  variation 
in  the  wages  of  their  employees.     In  good  faith  many  of  them  think 
and  talk  of  the  earnings  of  the  workers  in  the  terms  of  a  rate  based  upon 
full-time  employment,  and  seldom,  if  ever,  do  they  compute  the  amount 
which  the  worker  actually  receives  for  the  entire  year      Total  earnings 
are  also  affected  by  bonuses  or  premiums  and  by  fines.     Bonuses  are 
not  paid  to  workers  in  the  garment  factories  in  Cincinnati.     Few  fines 
were  reported,  though  they  are  imposed  from  time  to  time  as  a  matter 
of  discipline  for  carelessness  or  loss  of  material. 

Although  workers  are  keenly  aware  of  the  fluctuations  in  wages, 
they  too  have  thought  in  terms  of  the  weekly  amount  and  have  given 
too  little  attention  to  keeping  an  actual  record  of  earnings  for  the  entire 
year.  A  few  of  them  do  keep  records  for  their  personal  use.  The 
necessity  for  keeping  income-records  should  be  taught  in  the  school 
for  all  types  of  employment  including  those  which  use  the  piece-work 
or  hour-system  of  payment.  The  schools,  concerned  as  they  are  with 
teaching  children  the  value  and  wise  expenditure  of  money,  should  be 
equally  concerned  with  the  income  and  the  ways  in  which  it  is  to  be 
earned. 

Reports  on  wages  for  this  study  have  been  secured  from  four 
sources:  (1)  from  the  Industrial  Commission  of  Ohio;  (2)  from  the 
employers;  (3)  from  the  wage-scales  of  organized  labor,  and  (4)  from 
the  185  women  workers  interviewed.  Except  in  a  general  way,  the 
reports  given  in  the  following  paragraphs  do  not  take  into  consideration 
the  fluctuation  of  wages  due  to  the  piece  work  system,  the  varying 
amount  of  work  that  may  be  done  each  week,  and  the  amount  of  work 
available  each  week.  Hence,  although  accurate  as  far  as  they  go,  they 
are  no  more  than  approximations. 

Table  VIII  gives  the  reports  from  the  Industrial  Commission  of 
Ohio. 


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Wage  reports  which  were  secured  from  employers  and  from  organized 
labor  were  necessarily  general  in  character.  Cutters,  tailors,  and  press- 
ers  are  paid  weekly  rates.  Operators,  hand-sewers,  and  handfinishers 
are  paid  by  the  piece-rate  system  and  their  earnings  therefore  vary 
greatly.  In  shops  which  employ  union  workers,  piece-rates  and  wage- 
scales  are  set  by  agreement.  This  agreement  is  made  by  a  committee 
representing  the  union,  the  employees  in  the  factory,  and  the  employer. 
In  non-union  or  open  shops,  the  piece-rates  and  wage-scales  are,  as  a 
rule,  set  by  the  contractors  who  are  guided  by  the  usual  rates  paid  in 
the  factories. 

Wage  scales  as  reported  by  employers  were  as  follows :  Cutters,$l  5.00 
to  $25.00  per  week;  pressers,  $10.00  to  $15.00  per  week ; operators,  $6.00 
to  $14.00  per  week;  hand-sewers,  $6.00  to  $14.00  per  week.  These 
reports  are  generalizations  and  do  not  take  into  account  the  beginners 
who  are  paid  $4.00  per  week  while  learning,  a  period  not  exceeding  two 
or  three  weeks.  Frequently  this  learning  period  is  but  one  week. 
The  range  of  wages  as  reported  by  organized  labor  for  union  employees 
was  as  follows:  Cutters,  pressers,  and  tailors,  $10.00  to  $48.00  per  week; 
operators  and  hand-finishers  (women),  $6.00  to  $15.00  per  week. 

The  185  women  employees  interviewed  reported  as  follows:  Hand- 
sewers  $5.00  to  $12.00  per  week — the  majority  falling  within  the  range 
of  $6.00  to  $10.00  per  week;  six  persons  reported  less  than  $6.00  per 
week,  and  four  reported  more  than  $1 2.00  per  week.  Machine  operators 
received  slightly  more,  the  wage  being  from  $7.00  to  $12.00  per  week. 
Twelve  persons  reported  less  than  $7.00  per  week,  and  thirteen  persons 
reported  more  than  $12.00  per  week.  Seventy-two  gave  no  report. 
These  reports,  it  should  be  noted,  represent  wage  rates  and  not  actual 
earnings. 

A  report  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  on  Wages 
and  Hours  of  Labor  in  Clothing  Industries  for  1911  to  1913  gives  detailed 
and  accurate  wages  for  workers  in  the  clothing  industry  in  a  number  of 
the  most  important  clothing  centers  in  the  United  States,  one  of  which 
was  Cincinnati.  Table  IX  compiled  from  that  Bulletin,  shows  the 
wages  of  workers  in  the  clothing  industries  of  Cincinnati. 


43 


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2.  Conditions  in  the  Factories. 

Factory  conditions  are  a  pertinent  topic  for  discussion  in  any  indus- 
trial study  intended  for  educational  purposes.  The  majority  of  fac- 
tories (not  contracting  shops)  in  Cincinnati  are  located  in  large,  modern 
fire-proof  buildings  which  furnish  good  light  and  adequate  floor  space. 
Partitions  used  on  the  factory  floors  are  mainly  of  wood.  Dressing- 
rooms  and  toilets  are  provided  for  each  factory  in  the  building.  Lunch- 
room space,  as  required  by  law,  is  set  apart  in  the  larger  factories. 
Employers  report  difficulty  in  having  employees  use  the  lunch  rooms. 
No  reason  is  attributed  other  than  indifference.  Although  the  lunch- 
rooms meet  the  requirements  of  the  law,  none  of  those  visited  can  be 
considered  modern  or  more  than  barely  comfortable.  Contract  shops 
in  or  near  the  residence  districts  do  not  have  lunch-room  space. 

The  type  of  social  work  known  as  welfare  work  is  not  practiced  to 
any  extent  in  the  Cincinnati  garment  factories,  though  in  one  or  two 
instances  forewomen  act  in  this  capacity.  The  factories  in  this  city 
have  given  very  little  attention  to  attractive  surroundings  which  are 
coming  to  be  accepted  as  an  essential  feature  of  factory  management. 
"The  factory  is  a  place  for  work  and  not  recreation,"  as  one  manu- 
facturer expressed  it.  Granted  that  this  is  true,  it  is  the  belief  of  many 
persons  interested  in  factory  work — employers,  employees,  and  others — 
that  attractive  surroundings,  such  as  white,  clean  walls,  clean  windows, 
whole  chairs,  neat  receptacles  for  work,  and  orderly  arrangement  of 
equipment  and  materials,  help  very  much  to  create  a  wholesome  and 
contented  attitude  among  workers.  Such  an  attitude  is  not  found 
among  those  employed  in  the  dingy,  disorderly  factory. 

In  his  book  on  "The  Modern  Factory,"  Dr.  George  M.  Price  says: 
"All  welfare  work  is  important  in  the  first  place  as  a  social  experiment, 
as  an  example  of  what  can  therefore  and  ought  to  be  done  by  enlightened 
employers.  Welfare  work  is  an  incentive  to  improve  legal  sanitary 
standards.  Such  standards  give  only  the  minimum  requirements, 
and  it  is  only  when  intelligent  employers  show  the  way  and  prove  by 
example  that  other  improvements  are  possible  and  necessary,  that  the 
legal  standards  are  raised.  Welfare  work  not  only  raises  the  economic, 
intellectual,  and  social  standards  of  the  workers,  but  it  has  an  immense 
educational  value  in  paving  the  way  for  the  general  improvement  of  the 
condition  of  the  working  class,  and  for  the  enlightening  of  the  workers  as 
to  what  may  and  can  be  done  for  them  and,  perhaps,  by  themselves."* 

The  separate  contracting  shops  of  which  Cincinnati  has  a  large  num- 
ber are,  as  has  been  noted,  situated  mainly  in  the  residences  or  on  the 
premises  of  the  owners.  Many  of  these  buildings  are  light  wooden 
affairs  and  adequate  fire-exits  are  not  always  provided.  One  of  the 
shops  visited  was  situated  on  the  third  floor  of  the  home  of  the  contractor. 
The  house  was  of  brick  but  the  narrow  dark  stairways  were  of  wood, 
and  no  fire-escapes  were  provided  for  possible  emergencies.  Another 
frame  building  opened  directly  into  the  residence  of  the  contractor  and 
was  greatly  over-crowded.  Another  workroom  was  situated  on  the 
first  floor  of  a  wooden  building  some  distance  from  the  house  and  was 

*  "The  Modern  Factory,"  by  Geo.  M.  Price,  M.  D.  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.  Y., 
1914,  p.  294. 

45 


well  provided  with  exits.  The  contracting  shops  visited  were  well- 
lighted  and  clean  and  the  equipment  was  as  modern  as  any  found  in 
the  factories. 

Conditions  that  affect  the  health  of  the  workers  vary  in  the  several 
factories  and  to  some  extent  in  the  various  branches  of  the  industry. 
Conditions  as  to  light,  ventilation,  and  cleanliness  are  not  inherent 
in  the  industry  but  may  be  changed  as  the  industry  wills  or  as 
society  demands.  As  previously  stated,  the  factories  which  are  located 
in  the  modern  buildings  are  well  lighted  and  ventilated.  Certain 
other  conditions,  inherent  in  the  industry  itself,  are  less  readily  changed, 
but  they  are  not  impossible  to  control.  Dust  and  lint  rising  noticeably 
from  the  work  were  seen  in  only  one  factory.  Air  washing  machinery 
and  proper  circulation  of  air  in  the  factory  can  be  made  to  carry  off 
lint  and  dust. 

The  power-sewing  machines,  except  for  very  heavy  work,  run 
easily  and  are  stopped  with  a  comparatively  light  pressure  of  the  foot. 
The  pumping  motion  of  the  foot-power  machine  is  entirely  eliminated 
in  the  use  of  the  power-machine  and  permits  the  worker's  body  to  be 
more  easily  poised  for  work.  This  feature  has  very  materially  lessened 
the  strain  that  once  resulted  from  the  use  of  foot-power  machines. 
The  extent  to  which  this  relieves  physical  fatigue  and  increases  the 
efficiency  of  the  workers  may  be  readily  determined  by  comparing 
the  work  of  two  groups  of  persons  under  similar  conditions  but  using 
the  foot-power  machine  in  the  one  case  and  the  motor-power  machine 
in  the  other. 

Suitable  chairs  may  contribute  much  to  the  comfort  and  efficiency 
of  the  operators.  Attention  is  given  to  the  height  of  chairs  for  those 
employed  in  hand-sewing  but  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
chairs  used  at  the  sewing  machines. 

Under  the  best  conditions,  sewing  necessarily  requires  the  worker 
to  remain  in  one  position,  hence  the  active  person  will  not  find  it  agree- 
able work.  Persons  having  a  tendency  toward  anaemia,  narrow  chest, 
spinal  affections,  sluggish  circulation  or  sluggish  digestion  should  not 
be  encouraged  to  enter  the  garment  trades  as  hand-sewers  or  operators. 
Right  habits  of  sitting  and  regular  habits  of  living  will  enable  a  person 
to  work  in  the  sewing  trades  without  detriment  to  the  health  under 
right  conditions,  but  the  tendencies  mentioned  above  may  be  aggravated 
by  the  sedentary  work. 

Persons  with  a  tendency  to  nervous  excitement,  which  may  be 
aggravated  by  the  noise  of  the  machines,  will  probably  not  be  successful 
operators.  Temperament  as  a  factor  in  efficiency  and  satisfaction 
in  work  is  now  being  considered  more  frequently  than  in  the  past. 
Reports  of  misfits  shifted  to  an  entirely  different  kind  of  work  in  the 
factory  in  which  success  came  readily  are  recognized  as  having  an 
important  bearing  upon  this  point,  though  such  shifting  is  at  present 
wholly  incidental. 

Another  condition  seldom  considered  seriously  in  the  discussion 
of  factory  industries  is  the  use  of  stairways  by  the  employees.  An 
important  factor  to  the  workers  is  the  length  and  number  of  flights  of 
stairs  to  be  climbed  at  the  beginning  of  the  day's  work.  Some  factory 
buildings  provide  elevator  service  but  assume  no  responsibility  about 
its  use.  One  building  provided  with  passenger  elevators  in  which 

40 


a  number  of  garment  factories  are  situated,  has  a  sign  conspicuously 
placed  which  notifies  employees  that  the  elevator  is  not  for  their  use. 
One  employer  in  the  city  provides  elevator  service  for  all  workers 
employed  above  the  second  floor  and  requires  them  to  use  it.  A  few 
simple  tests  proved  to  him  that  climbing  stairs  wearied  the  workers 
at  the  time  of  the  day  when  they  should  have  been  most  comfortable. 
The  effect  of  garment-making  upon  the  personal  ideals  and  stan- 
dards of  the  workers  and  upon  the  stimulation  of  their  interest  and 
intelligence  are  questions  that  constantly  arise.  Some  of  the  operations 
in  the  industry  call  for  little  skill  or  thought  on  the  part  of  the  worker, 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  work  requires  skill  and  judgment.  The 
repetition  which  seems  monotonous  to  some  persons  is  not  considered  so 
by  the  workers  who  find  new  problems  in  their  work  each  day.  This 
is  especially  true  of  those  processes  that  have  to  do  with  the  construc- 
tion of  a  garment.  The  work  itself  has  no  direct  bearing  upon  the 
social  standing  of  those  engaged  in  the  industry.  The  fact  that  groups 
of  workers  engaged  in  the  same  branch  and  grade  of  garment- work 
in  different  cities  vary  greatly  in  type  and  social  standing  bears  out 
this  statement.  These  factors,  like  conditions  that  surround  the  work- 
ers, are  not  static  but  changeable  and  flexible  and  may  be  made  to  take 
on  the  character  which  the  workers  and  society  demand  for  them. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Selection  Requirements  and  Promotion  of  Workers  in  the 
Garment  Industries. 

New  employees  are  chosen  by  the  factory  manager  or  by  the  fore- 
man who  has  charge  of  the  shop  for  which  workers  are  being  employed. 
Only  the  large  factory  has  a  factory  manager  who  is  responsible  for 
the  entire  establishment.  The  smaller  factory  is  divided  into  shops, 
each  one  of  which  is  in  charge  of  a  foreman  or  of  a  contractor  if  the 
contracting  system  is  used. 

The  method  of  selecting  workers  in  the  majority  of  factories  con- 
sists in  holding  a  personal  interview  with  the  applicant  and  making 
a  written  record  of  the  applicant's  name,  age,  and  address.  In  the 
personal  interview  such  questions  as,  "How  old  are  you?"  "Can  you 
run  a  power  machine?"  "Where  have  you  worked  before?"  "What 
did  you  do?"  "Do  you  live  at  home  or  board?"  are  asked  and  consti- 
tute the  basis  of  the  selection  process  in  the  majority  of  cases.  The 
impression  which  the  interviewer  receives  with  regard  to  personal 
appearance,  alertness,  and  general  intelligence  is,  with  many  employers, 
the  determining  factor  in  selecting  workers.  A  few  employers  require 
a  written  application  so  as  to  have  a  record  of  the  name  and  residence  of 
the  employees.  The  last  step  in  the  hiring  process  is  the  trying-out,  or 
probation  period,  which  varies  in  length  according  to  evidences  of 
ability  and  willingness  in  the  worker  and  the  pressure  of  work  in  the 
factory.  In  the  rush  seasons,  persons  with  little  ability  for  the  work 
required  are  frequently  employed  because  no  others  can  be  secured; 
these  persons  as  a  rule  are  only  retained  during  the  rush  season  and  are 
dismissed  when  the  press  of  work  is  over. 

According  to  the  law  young  persons  under  18  years  of  age  must 
file  their  working-certificates  with  the  employer  during  the  period  of 

47 


employment.  Those  who  have  received  their  working-certificates 
but  recently  must  verify  their  age  by  a  written  statement  from  the 
parents  or  from  the  school.  The  experienced  worker  is  asked  why 
she  left  her  previous  place  of  employment  and  the  length  of  service; 
but  this  inquiry  is  not  followed  up  systematically  by  consultation  with 
with  the  former  employer  regarding  this  or  other  points  which  may 
have  a  bearing  upon  the  applicant's  suitability. 

In  selecting  new  workers,  the  employer  has  in  mind  such  general 
qualities  as  alertness,  intelligence,  neatness,  good  health,  and  reliability, 
and  the  specific  ability  to  run  a  power-machine.  Girls  who  are  nervous 
or  excitable  are  not  employed  if  that  fact  is  obvious. 

Similarly,  the  applicant  for  work  is  only  vaguely  informed  regard- 
ing the  employment  which  she  is  seeking  to  enter.  Many  employees 
enter  the  industry  through  friends  or  relatives  already  employed.  Some 
come  from  other  branches  of  the  garment  industries  or  from  dressmaking 
establishments.  Others  drift  in  from  their  homes  for  temporary 
employment. 

Once  engaged,  young  workers  are  placed  in  the  factory  with  little 
reference  to  their  ability  or  possible  preference  for  the  special  work 
to  which  they  are  assigned,  and  only  incidental  effort  is  made  to  train 
them.  Little  instruction  is  given  beyond  showing  them  how  to  run 
the  machine  and  how  to  do  the  work  for  one  process,  usually  a  very 
simple  one,  and  after  a  few  days  they  are  expected  to  shift  for  them- 
selves. Practically  no  thought  has  been  given,  so  far  as  can  be 
determined,  to  grading  the  operations  for  the  learner  in  order  that  she 
may  successfully  acquire  the  rudiments  of  sewing,  of  putting  garments 
together,  and  of  managing  the  machine.  No  effort  has  been  made  to 
standardize  a  series  of  operations  in  which  the  learner  may  be  given 
instruction  in  rotation  that  will  serve  as  training  for  the  industry. 

The  number  of  workers  selected  by  this  method  and  placed  in  the 
work-rooms  who  persevere  and  "make  good"  is  variously  estimated 
as  two  in  five,  one  in  six,  and  one  in  seven.  Although  these  estimates 
represent  the  opinion  of  individual  employers,  they  indicate  a  large 
turnover  of  labor  which  results  in  tremendous  cost  to  the  manu- 
facturer and  a  serious  waste  of  time  and  a  heavy  burden  of  discourage- 
ment for  the  worker — discouragement  which  may  be  far-reaching 
in  its  consequences.  A  tragic  phase  of  this  condition  in  industry  is 
that  failure  is  almost  wholly  attributed  to  the  stupidity,  carelessness, 
and  indifference  of  the  workers,  while,  until  recently,  employers  have 
recognized  almost  no  responsibility  in  this  matter;  but  they  are  now 
beginning  to  see  the  possibilities  of  training  as  a  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem of  labor  turnover  for  the  worker  and  for  the  industry. 

The  experienced  worker  is,  as  a  rule,  placed  in  the  line  of  work  in 
which  she  has  had  experience  or,  perhaps,  has  specialized.  Any 
additional  instruction  that  the  experienced  worker  may  need  for  new 
operations  which  are  introduced  from  time  to  time  into  the  industry 
is  given  by  forewomen ;  or,  if  the  worker  is  ambitious,  she  may  instruct 
herself. 

Shifting  of  workers  from  one  factory  to  another,  or  from  one  line 
of  work  to  another  has,  in  the  past,  been  attributed  to  indifference 
on  the  part  of  the  worker  or  lack  of  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the 
employer  for  workers  during  the  dull  season.  The  shifting  of  exper- 

48 


ienced  workers  is  less  than  popular  reports  would  indicate.  Of  the  185 
garment- workers  interviewed  for  this  study,  only  41  had  been  employ- 
ed at  any  other  wage-earning  occupation.  Of  these,  7  had  been 
employed  in  the  dressmaking  trade  or  in  millinery;  1,  in  an  alteration 
department  of  a  department  store;  and  3,  as  sales-persons  in  cloak 
departments. 

Garment  workers  who  have  not  been  employed  in  any  other  type 
of  work  have  moved  about  from  one  factory  to  another,  but  relatively 
few  of  the  185  interviewed  may  be  called  "shifters."  Changes  have 
been  made  because  of  lack  of  employment  or  a  desire  for  more  interest- 
ing or  remunerative  work.  Little  attempt  has  been  made  by  the 
employers  to  secure  and  to  consider  the  facts  relating  to  failure  on  the 
part  of  workers  except  in  individual  cases.  Closer  study  of  the 
extent  to  which  skill,  general  intelligence,  knowledge  of  fabrics,  and 
knowledge  of  garment  construction  are  demanded  for  the  various 
operations  will  go  far  to  place  the  selection  of  workers  upon  a  much 
more  effective  and  less  expensive  basis. 

The  training  of  workers  in  garment  factories  of  Cincinnati  is  lim- 
ited and  incidental.  Promising  persons  are  instructed  from  time  to 
time  and  moved  from  one  type  of  work  to  another  in  order  to  increase 
their  usefulness  or  to  meet  an  emergency  in  the  work  room ;  but  in  no 
case  is  it  systematically  done  or  for  more  than  a  few  carefully  selected 
persons.  If  a  worker  thinks  she  is  being  "used"  to  fit  in  anywhere 
during  dull  seasons  she  is  likely  to  object  to  being  shifted,  yet  the  all- 
round  training  which  progressive  workers  consider  necessary  for  the 
development  of  skill  and  workmanship  and  an  assured  standing  in  the 
trade  is  not  under  present  conditions  obtained  in  any  other  way.  One 
factory,  as  noted  elsewhere  in  this  report,  provides  for  rotation  of  work 
for  a  few  workers.  Aside  from  this  one  instance,  such  instruction  as 
is  given  to  beginners  cannot  be  called  training  since  it  gives  a  minimum 
of  attention  to  the  worker  and  provides  meagerly  for  new  experiences. 
The  provision  made  applies  to  only  a  few  selected  persons. 

Promotions  are  not  frequent  and  such  as  are  made  are  incidental 
or  due  to  the  initiative  or  insistence  of  the  individual.  Foremen  and 
forewomen  have  been  promoted  from  the  ranks  to  executive  positions 
involving  considerable  responsibility  and  knowledge  of  productive 
work.  Promotions  within  the  ranks  are  less  frequent  A  serious 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  promotion  is  wages.  Piece-rates  for  work  are 
so  regulated  as  to  bring  weekly  earnings  of  all  workers  to  about  the 
same  level ;  hence  inducements  in  money  return  are  too  small  to  stimu- 
late any  but  the  most  ambitious.  When  demand  for  workers  makes 
promotion  or  change  of  work  desirable,  a  rate  of  pay  equal  to  that 
already  being  received  is  offered  for  a  week  or  more  to  allow  for  the  learn- 
ing period  and  the  possible  loss  in  earnings  during  that  period.  The 
advance  is  in  many  instances  too  slight  and  the  learning  period  allowed 
too  short  to  make  the  change  worth  the  risk.  This  condition  frequently 
accounts  for  the  unwillingness  of  the  worker  to  change  from  one  line 
of  work  to  another  which  employers  report.  It  is  true  in  many 
instances  that  workers  prefer  to  continue  at  one  operation  rather  than 
make  a  change;  but  a  measure  of  the  preference  is  due  to  the  risk  in 
taking  chances  rather  than  to  the  physical  and  mental  inertia  with 
which  they  are  credited.  Some  managers,  and  more  particularly 

49 


some  foremen  in  charge  of  the  shops,  believe  that  it  makes  for  greater 
skill,  a  longer  working  career,  and  greater  intelligence  and  alertness 
to  have  workers  rotate  from  one  operation  to  another,  remaining -in 
each  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  render  service  to  the  industry 
and  to  give  to  the  worker  real  training  and  skill.  Obviously  these 
changes  cannot  be  made  too  frequently  without  risk  to  the  quality  of 
work,  the  amount  of  output,  and  profitable  production. 

What  makes  an  occupation  or  the  training  for  an  occupation  worth 
while  from  the  standpoint  of  the  worker?  What  are  the  points  at 
issue  for  the  person  who  is  making  a  choice  of  work  or  training  for  an 
occupation? 

The  following  list  of  questions  covers  the  important  points,  each 
of  which  is  more  or  less  decisive  according  to  the  personal  factors 
involved : 

1.  What  is  the  opportunity  for  rendering  social  service? 

2.  What  will  be  the  money  return? 

3.  What  advancement  is  possible  if  I  am  successful? 

4.  How  does  society  rate  the  work  of  the  particular  occupation 
or  of  the  industry? 

5.  Is  the  work  interesting?     Is  there  something  new  to  learn  as 
the  work  goes  on? 

6.  To  what  extent  will  the  work  affect  the  health? 

Answering  these  questions  is  a  long  and  serious  process.  A  selec- 
tion may  be  made  after  consideration  of  only  one  point,  such  as  the 
social  rating  of  the  work,  or  the  opportunity  for  service,  or  the  wage 
return.  The  first  two  questions  are  frequently  uppermost  where  girls 
are  making  a  choice.  In  any  event,  they  should  be  answered  tenta- 
tively if  the  person  is  young.  The  story  of  the  great  physician,  the 
lawyer,  the  teacher,  the  merchant,  whose  early  ambition  was  to  be  a 
street-car  conductor,  or  a  cashier,  or  a  policeman,  is  familiar.  The  ele- 
ments of  personal  ability,  the  length  of  time  available  for  study  and 
training,  the  individual's  probable  power  of  development,  and  the 
opportunity  for  employment  in  the  kind  of  work  chosen  must  all  be  con- 
sidered. It  is  important  that  those  attempting  to  assist  in  the  process 
of  selection  should  not  allow  personal  prejudices  to  become  confused 
with  the  essential  and  enduring  elements  of  the  occupation.  An 
occupation  is  as  good  as  those  engaged  in  it  help  to  make  it.  When  a 
necessary  and  valuable  social  service  is  rendered,  as  in  the  garment 
industries,  there  is  little  room  to  question  the  social  rating  it  deserves. 

Unless  the  effect  on  health  of  the  occupation  under  consideration 
is  obviously  harmful,  the  worker  is  frequently  disposed  to  ignore  this 
question.  On  the  other  hand,  the  money  return  is  often  of  first 
importance.  In  the  garment  industries  the  money  return  is  not  as  great 
as  it  should  be,  but  trained  workers  who  can  reduce  waste,  lessen  the 
amount  of  "seconds"  and  imperfect  work,  and  use  the  factory  equip- 
ment without  abusing  it  will  eventually  add  the  equivalent  of  this 
saving  to  their  wages.  Under  present  conditions  the  wages  paid  are 
decreased  by  the  margin  for  this  wastage — a  margin  which  the  manu- 
facturer deducts  as  a  protection  against  loss  and  as  an  insurance  that 
the  profits  shall  be  kept  at  the  level  demanded  for  business  management. 

50 


Advancement  or  promotion  must  be  provided  for,  if  a  scheme  of 
training  the  workers  is  to  meet  with  success.  If  a  school  attendance 
is  to  be  increased  by  two  years  or  more  and  the  earning  period  decreas- 
ed by  as  many  years,  a  tangible  reward  in  a  higher  entrance  wage 
and  the  possibility  of  increasing  wages  through  new  and  additional 
responsibilities  must  be  possible  of  attainment.  The  industries  are 
coming  to  realize  that  this  is  true  and  employers  here  and  there  through- 
out the  country  are  providing  the  means  to  meet  this  need  of  the  work- 
ers. A  scheme  of  promotion  calls  for  a  careful  classification  of  the  work 
of  the  industry,  the  selection  of  workers  with  reference  to  the  demand  of 
each  class  or  group  of  operations,  and  the  placing  of  them,  especially 
the  younger  workers,  with  reference  to  their  ability  and  probable 
qualifications  for  advancement.  Some  industries  may  not  lend  them- 
selves to  such  a  method,  but  the  garment  industries  are  sufficiently 
varied  and  rich  enough  in  technical  content  to  make  a  system  of  pro- 
motion practical  and  desirable.  The  standardization  and  refining 
of  the  technical  aspects  is  a  distinct  contribution  .to  the  science  and  art 
of  garment-making. 

The  garment  industries  make,  in  the  main,  four  requirements  of 
the  workers,  though  these  requirements  are  not  always  considered  in 
selecting  workers  and,  when  they  are  considered,  only  in  rare  instances 
is  the  worker  aware  of  them.  These  points  are:  (1)  ability  to  run  a 
power  sewing-machine  and  to  perform  one  operation  acceptably; 
(2)  knowledge  of  the  trade  so  far  as  this  single  operation  demands  knowl- 
edge of  the  trade;  (3)  general  intelligence  which  enables  the  worker 
to  understand  and  follow  simple  directions;  and  (4)  sufficient  health 
and  vigor  to  work  the  full  working  day  and  six  days  a  week  when 
required. 

The  ability  to  perform  one  operation  successfully  is,  of  course,  a 
matter  of  chance  with  the  beginner.  Personal  qualifications  count 
heavily  when  there  is  no  experience  to  give  evidence  of  ability.  Knowl-' 
edge  of  the  trade,  except  for  the  more  important  positions  in  the  work- 
rooms, is  hardly  expected,  and  considered  in  only  a  very  desultory  way, 
though  when  such  knowledge  is  discovered  it  is  considered  valuable 
and,  as  a  rule,  receives  recognition.  General  intelligence  is  also  readily 
recognized  and  rewarded,  though  incidentally.  Still  less  attention 
is  given  to  health  as  a  factor  in  efficiency,  though  employers  are  not 
indifferent  to  its  importance  to  the  industry  as  well  as  to  the  worker. 

The  quality  of  workmanship  demanded  for  garment-making  varies 
greatly  in  the  different  branches  of  the  industry.  The  factors  which 
tend  to  make  for  high-grade  workmanship  are  not  analyzed,  though 
each  foreman  makes  an  effort  to  secure  workers  who  have  a  high 
degree  of  skill  for  the  work  to  be  done.  Selection  is  usually  based  on  the 
trial  method  and  if  the  worker  makes  good  no  further  attention  is 
given  her.  The  grade  of  general  intelligence  required  of  workers  is 
difficult  to  measure  by  any  tests  which  are  as  yet  devised.  Several 
things  stand  out,  however,  as  general  mental  qualifications  which 
the  worker  should  have.  These  are  the  ability  to  understand  and  carry 
out  oral  and  written  directions,  especially  the  directions  on  the  rout- 
ing ticket.  It  is  highly  desirable  that  workers  should  be  able  to  com- 

51 


prehend  and  carry  out  more  than  the  process  of  the  sequence.  The 
technical  background  of  the  trade,  except  for  cutters,  foremen,  and  fore- 
women, is  almost  wholly  unknown  to  the  garment- worker  in  the  factory. 

Indications  point  to  the  fact  that  the  lowest  ebb  in  demands  upon 
the  worker  has  been  reached.  In  the  future,  much  more  attention 
will  be  given  to  her  technical  equipment  for  productive  work ;  elements 
of  skill  and  trade  knowledge  will  be  considered  and  evaluated,  and 
types  of  ability  will  be  recognized.  The  appreciation  of  these  factors 
will  bring  about  a  more  selective  attitude  toward  workers  and  this 
will  in  turn  conduce  to  greater  consideration  for  their  interests. 

The  qualifications  of  workers  must  receive  greater  attention  and 
more  careful  study  than  industry  is  giving  to  them  at  the  present  time. 
The  school  may  assist  very  materially  in  this  selective  process  and, 
through  carefully  arranged  courses  of  instruction,  develop  qualities 
that  should  be  developed  and  help  to  counteract  tendencies  which  may 
be  detrimental. 

Health  should  receive  primary  consideration  from  the  school  and 
from  the  industry.  Employment  should  be  preceded  by  a  physical 
examination  and  medical  care  during  the  working  period  should  be 
provided  for.  Tendencies  which  may  be  aggravated  by  sedentary 
work  should  disqualify  for  garment-making  unless  they  can  be  suf- 
ficiently overcome  or  controlled  to  avoid  risk  to  the  worker.  Normal 
health  and  physique,  with  no  tendency  toward  anaemia,  contracted 
chest,  curvature  of  the  spine,  or  similar  weaknesses  which  may  be 
aggravated  by  sitting  in  one  position  or  by  leaning  over  the  work, 
are  essential.  Right  habits  of  sitting,  with  the  body  bent  from  the 
hips  and  not  from  the  waist  when  seated  at  work  at  the  machine, 
greatly  assist  in  retaining  normal  health.  Right  habits  of  eating, 
sleeping,  and  exercising  also  aid  the  worker  to  keep  in  good  health  and 
should  have  as  much  attention  as  habits  of  posture.  These  habits 
should  be  acquired  by  the  young  person  while  in  school. 

Dress  is  also  an  important  factor  in  health,  physical  comfort,  and 
working  efficiency.  Uniforms  have  not  been  adopted  for  work  in 
the  factory,  though  it  is  customary  among  the  workers  to  wear  a  large 
wrapper  apron  which  covers  and  protects  the  waist  and  skirt.  Where 
adequate  dressing-rooms  are  provided,  many  workers  change  the 
clothing.  This  is  to  be  commended  as  it  keeps  the  outer  clothing  fresh, 
admits  of  lighter  dressing  in  the  work-rooms,  and  protects  the  person  from 
the  sudden  chill  caused  by  going  into  a  cold  atmosphere  from  a  warm 
room.  Dress  which  leaves  the  body  free  during  the  working  hours 
also  contributes  to  the  health  of  the  worker. 

Good  eyesight  is  also  important.  Defective  vision  which  may  not 
be  readily  remedied  by  glasses  disqualifies  a  person  for  both  hand- 
sewing  and  machine-sewing. 

Except  for  fine  hand- work,  the  processes  used  in  factory  garment- 
making  do  not  require  constant  close  attention  to  the  needle  or  the 
minute  spot  upon  which  the  needle  operates,  as  is  sometimes  averred. 
For  the  machine  processes,  the  operator  must  give  attention  to  the 
entire  piece  of  work,  as  the  length  of  the  seam  or  the  long  portion  of  the 
hem,  and  not  to  one  small  section  except  in  such  instances  as  turning 
corners  or  sewing  to  an  edge  for  which  the  sewing  must  stop  on  the 
stitch  Because  of  the  extreme  physical  and  mental  adjustment 

52 


required  by  this  detail  work,  the  long  seam  and  such  stitching  as  does 
not  have  to  be  stopped  on  the  stitch  is  preferred  by  the  majority  of 
workers  to  such  operations  as  sewing  on  labels,  taping  edges,  and  the 
like. 

With  adequate  light,  preferably  natural  light,  which  every  factory 
should  provide,  and  proper  attention  to  the  care  of  the  eyes,  the 
majority  of  the  sewing  processes  should  not  injure  the  eyes  any  more 
than  other  types  of  work  which  call  for  the  same  amount  of  attention. 

General  education  to  develop  general  intelligence  is  a  self-evident 
need.  There  is  a  sort  of  intelligence  which  may  be  expressed  in  terms 
of  ability  to  read,  write,  and  do  simple  arithmetic.  The  amount  of 
actual  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetical  calculations  required  of  the 
garment-worker  is  relatively  small  and  is,  in  most  instances,  for  her 
own  benefit  and  protection  rather  than  a  contribution  to  the  work 
itself.  As  piece  rates  are  expressed  in  fractions  and  in  decimals, 
workers  should  be  able  to  compute  in  whole  numbers,  in  fractions  having 
at  least  two  numbers  in  the  denominator,  and  decimals  in  terms  of 
hundredths.  The  routing  ticket  is  a  tag  resembling  a  baggage  tag  with 
numbers  designating  each  operation  placed  in  a  series  of  small  sections. 
Each  section  is  out  off  by  the  worker  as  she  completes  her  work  and 
represents  the  equivalent  of  the  money  due  her  for  that  particular 
operation.  These  "tickets"  are  turned  in  at  the  end  of  the  day  and 
unless  she  keeps  a  record  for  her  personal  use  she  has  no  means  of  check- 
ing up  her  wages  for  the  week  or  for  the  year.  Workers  are  not 
required  to  keep  a  record  but  they  should  be  taught  to  be  as  businesslike 
in  their  affairs  as  the  employers.  When  computation  of  wages  is 
taught  in  the  school  in  connection  with  instructions  in  fractions  and 
decimals,  the  study  should  be  made  as  concrete  and  as  true  to  condi- 
tions as  possible.  How  piece-rates  are  set,  what  determine  the  stan- 
dard of  piece-rates,  and  computation  of  earnings  in  terms  of  work 
completed  are  elemental  experiences  of  money  economy  which  every 
person  should  have. 

General  intelligence  which  affects  the  attitude  toward  work,  ability 
to  think  beyond  the  task,  and  interest  in  impersonal  affairs,  are  the 
expression  of  personal  variations,  which  may  be  inherent  or  due  to 
home  training,  environment,  and  education.  A  worker  may  show  a 
high  degree  of  intelligence,  a  very  keen  interest  in  phases  of  the 
industry,  and  give  other  than  required  attention  to  the  conditions  of 
the  trade.  The  interest  may  be  sufficiently  great  to  make  study  of 
the  trade  journals  the  object  of  recreation.  This  person  becomes  the 
leader  in  the  trade.  Another  worker  may  prefer  reading  and  study 
of  a  cultural  character,  such  as  literature  or  history  or  other  general 
academic  subjects.  Another  may  prefer  physical  exercises,  which 
because  of  its  recreational  value,  lends  a  wholesome  outlook  upon  life 
and  results  in  common  sense — a  good  name  for  general  intelligence. 
Still  another  type  of  worker  puts  in  time,  finishes  a  given  amount  of 
work,  and  leaves  the  work-room  on  the  tap  of  the  bell.  This  worker 
usually  shows  little  interest  in  serious  work  and  frequently  is  erratic 
in  her  recreation.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  quality  of  general 
intelligence  of  workers  is  commensurate  with  education  and  training, 
though  there  are  exceptions.  When  manipulative  ability  is  inherent  or 
has  been  developed  through  experience  and  training,  the  higher  grade 

53 


of  general  intelligence  very  materially  raises  the  general  working 
efficiency.  There  is  sufficient  evidence  of  this  in  every  branch  of  the 
industry  to  refute  the  opinion  that  general  intelligence  has  no  bearing 
on  the  working  efficiency  of  garment  workers. 

Personality,  which  expresses  itself  in  ability  to  deal  with  people, 
agreeability,  interest  in  work,  in  affairs  of  business,  in  social  and  civic 
matters,  and  in  many  other  less  tangible  ways,  has  a  great  value  in 
factory  work.  It  is  an  asset  rather  than  a  requirement,  however, 
as  the  operator  or  the  hand-sewer  deals  usually  with  not  more  than 
two  people — the  person  in  charge  of  her  particular  group  or  section 
and  the  foreman  or  forewoman  in  charge  of  the  department.  There 
is  less  contact  with  fellow  workers  in  factory  employments  than  in 
stores  or  office  employment,  where,  especially  in  the  former,  the  ability 
to  deal  agreeably  with  people,  to  interest,  and  to  please  them  has  a 
great  bearing  on  working  efficiency. 

Temperamental  tendencies,  which  thus  far  have  been  almost  wholly 
neglected  in  the  study  of  industrial  and  commercial  employments, 
are  found  in  many  cases  to  have  a  distinct  bearing  upon  working  abil- 
ity. The  desire  for  frequent  variations  in  work  or  preference  for  one 
kind  of  work  with  few  variations,  interest  in  a  particular  type  of  work, 
interest  in  the  mechanical  processes  involved,  or  interest  in  the  finished 
product,  may  be  indications  of  temperament  which,  if  carefully  studied 
with  reference  to  the  person  and  the  specific  demands  made  by  each 
occupation,  would  give  valuable  and  practical  data.  This  personal 
element  in  working  ability  is  at  present  very  largely  overlooked,  though 
the  quality  of  the  product  is  always  influenced  by  it.  With  the  growing 
demand  in  this  country  for  superior  workmanship,  more  attention 
to  the  personal  contribution  of  the  worker  will  be  indispensable. 

Trade  and  technical  knowledge  are  much  more  difficult  to  measure 
in  terms  of  industries  which  use  machine  processes  and  subdivide 
the  work  extensively  than  they  are  in  terms  of  a  handicraft  in  which 
the  worker  makes  the  product  from  pattern  to  finished  garment. 
Knowledge  of  the  machine  beyond  the  ability  to  operate  it  is  not 
required  of  workers  in  the  industry.  The  parts  which  regulate  the 
stitch,  feed,  and  tension  are  set  to  scale  by  a  machinist  and  workers 
are  not  permitted  to  make  even  the  most  minor  changes.  The  stand- 
ards for  the  work  depend  in  large  measure  upon  uniformity  which 
slight  changes  may  alter  very  materially.  Rigid  rules  are  necessary 
to  keep  up  these  standards.  But  when  workers  do  not  know  their 
machines  well  enough  to  detect  bad  work,  they  do  not  report  the 
machine  for  repairs.  Persons  preparing  for  the  sewing-trades  should 
at  least  know  thoroughly  the  single-needle  machines  in  common  use 
and  understand  the  principles  of  adjustment  sufficiently  to  detect 
errors  in  the  action  and  resulting  imperfections  in  the  work.  Knowledge 
of  the  machine  also  enables  the  worker  to  avoid  misusing  it  and  this  is 
an  important  item  in  reducing  the  cost  of  repairs  and  depreciation  of 
equipment.  Much  can  be  taught  the  worker  about  the  things  to  be 
avoided  in  the  use  of  the  machine  as  well  as  how  to  care  for  the  simpler 
working  parts. 

With  regard  to  the  individual  worker's  technical  ability,  there  is 
little  doubt  that  too  much  has  been  taken  for  granted  and  too  little 
attention  has  been  given  to  demands  upon  the  worker.  It  has  been 

54 


too  hastily  assumed  that  specialization  has  made  technical  efficiency 
unnecessary  and  the  automatic  character  of  modern  industry  has  been 
over-emphasized.  While  it  is  true  that  specialization  divides  the  trade 
and  technical  aspects  of  the  garment  industries  and,  to  some  extent, 
changes  them,  it  is  also  true  that  considerable  trade  and  technical 
background  still  remains,  and  that,  moreover,  there  is  still  a  vast 
field  of  undiscovered  and  undeveloped  technical  aspects  which  must 
be  eventually  worked  out  through  the  medium  of  machine  processes 
rather  than  of  hand  work. 

Such  factors  as  knowledge  of  fabrics,  their  texture  and  weaves,  and 
knowledge  of  how  to  handle  fabrics  were  once  considered  a  part  of  the 
trade  to  be  learned  only  through  experience  or  by  accident.  Now 
their  importance  is  being  recognized  by  manufacturers  and  by  workers, 
and,  in  the  higher  lines  of  the  industry  and  in  technical  training  courses, 
scientific  study  is  being  given  to  both  factors  mentioned.  With  the 
group  who  learn  of  them  in  the  trade  by  using  the  fabrics,  the  necessity 
is  equally  important  though  the  learning  process  is  slower  and  the 
knowledge  thus  gained  lacks  much  of  the  essential  scientific  background. 

Garment-making  in  factories  becomes  interesting  and  stimulating 
when  the  section  system  becomes  systematized  in  terms  of  human 
values  as  well  as  in  terms  of  trade  demands.  Even  where  repetition 
is  a  prominent  factor,  the  processes  are  sufficiently  varied,  the  skill 
demanded  is  of  such  a  high  order,  and  the  background  of  information 
is  so  vitally  related  to  fundamental  human  needs  that  the  work  is 
never  wholly  lacking  in  creative  possibilities. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  vocational  school,  it  is  important 
that  the  garment  trades  have  a  teachable  content  which  may  be  given 
to  prospective  workers  or  to  workers  in  the  trade  who  wish  to  advance ; 
it  is  important  that  the  kind  and  degree  of  skill  required  are  of  sufficient 
moment  to  justify  a  course  of  training;  and  it  is  important  that  the 
worker's  interest,  intelligence,  and  mental  attitude  toward  her  trade 
are  capable  of  development  in  the  right  direction  by  educational  meth- 
ods. From  the  point  of  view  of  the  manufacturers,  it  is  important 
that  the  demand  for  well-made,  attractive,  ready-to-wear  clothing  is 
vastly  increasing.  For  instance,  the  making  of  women's  wear  which 
has  lingered  for  so  long  in  the  hands  of  the  housewife  and  the  private 
dressmaker  is  being  transferred  with  almost  magical  swiftness  to  the 
shops  and  factories.  A  leading  silk  manufacturer  says  that  from  60 
to  70  per  cent  of  the  silk  yards  goods  now  made  in  the  country  is  being 
sold  to  the  manufacturer,  or  the  cutting-up  trade.  And  this  growing 
demand  for  quantity  is  being  rapidly  supplemented  by  the  demand  for 
quality.  To  keep  pace  with  both,  the  manufacturer  will  have  to 
recognize  the  demand  of  industry  for  intelligently  trained  workers. 
This  need  is  already  recognized  by  progressive  manufacturers  who 
are  lending  their  aid  and  co-operation  toward  the  establishment  of  the 
necessary  courses  of  vocational  training. 

Society  esteems  an  occupation  in  a  large  measure  according  to  the 
worker's  own  standard  for  and  pride  in  it.  Work  which  contributes 
essentially  to  the  welfare  of  society  must  be  made  right  for  the  worker. 
Since  the  industry  not  only  tenders  a  valuable  service  to  the  commu- 
nity but  also  offers  a  wide  range  of  technical  and  general  subject- 

55 


matter  to  stimulate  the  interest  and  develop  the  intelligence  of  the 
workers,  the  task  of  placing  garment-making  upon  a  higher  technical, 
social,  and  economic  plane  should  be  a  relatively  easy  one. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Some  Facts  Regarding  the  Public  Schools.* 

Certain  facts  regarding  the  work  of  the  public  schools  in  Cincinnati 
have  an  important  bearing  upon  a  study  of  an  industry  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  kind  and  extent  of  trade-preparatory  courses  that 
should  be  established.  The  provisions  for  school  attendance,  con- 
ditions upon  which  young  people  may  go  to  work,  methods  of  granting 
working  certificates,  regulation  of  employment,  the  extent  of  retarda- 
tion, and  the  extent  to  which  industrial  and  household  arts  courses 
are  provided  in  the  schools  and  continuation  classes  are  important 
points  for  consideration  in  planning  vocational  courses.  These  and 
other  topics  are  discussed  briefly  in  this  chapter  for  the  purpose  of 
indicating  the  correlation  of  new  courses  with  those  established. 

The  new  child  labor  law  went  into  effect  in  August,  1913,  changed 
the  employment  age  to  15  years  for  boys  and  16  years  for  girls,  and 
established  the  6th  grade  test  for  boys  and  the  7th  grade  test  for  girls, 
and  required  working  papers  for  boys  to  16  years  and  for  girls  to  18 
years  of  age.  The  certificates  are  issued  under  the  direction  of  the 
superintendent  of  schools.  The  child  labor  law  makes  four  provisos 
for  the  granting  of  working  certificates.  These  are  (1)  a  written  pledge 
or  promise  of  the  employer  legally  to  employ  the  child  and  a  written 
agreement  to  return  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  the  age  and  school- 
ing certificate  within  two  days  after  the  child's  withdrawal  or  dis- 
missal from  the  service  of  the  employer  with  reasons  for  withdrawal 
or  dismissal;  (2)  the  school  record  of  the  child  filled  out  and  signed  by 
the  principal  in  charge  of  the  school  which  the  child  attended  last; 
(3)  documentary  proof  of  age,  such  as  passport,  birth  or  baptismal 
certificate,  or  school  census  record  of  age ;  and  (4)  a  certificate  from  the 
school  physician  showing  that  the  child  is  physically  fit  to  be  employed 
in  any  of  the  occupations  open  to  young  persons.  The  physician 
may  refuse  to  sign  the  card,  in  which  case  no  certificate  may  be  issued ; 
or  he  may  withhold  his  signature  until  remedial  physical  defects,  such 
as  adenoids,  tonsils,  or  defective  vision  have  been  remedied.  Co-opera- 
tion with  the  medical  clinics  relieves  children  of  any  expense  for  such 
treatment. 

Though  the  school  record  must  show  that  the  boy  has  completed 
the  sixth  grade  and  the  girl  the  seventh,  a  special  provision  is  made 
for  young  persons  who  are  so  mentally  retarded  that  they  cannot 
profitably  complete  the  specified  amount  of  school  work.  They 
may  be  given  a  special  examination  in  the  psychological  laboratory  of 
the  Vocational  Bureau,  and  if  this  test  shows  that  they  are  below 
the  normal  in  development,  they  may  be  granted  the  working  certi- 
ficate provided  they  have  complied  with  all  the  other  requirements. 

The  psychological  laboratory,  together  with  the  school  records, 
provide  the  means  of  determining  for  admission  the  type  of  girl  who 
will  profit  by  courses  in  vocational  training  and  continued  education. 

*  The  material  of  this  chapter  is  based  on  a  special  report  by  the  Director 
of  the  Vocational  Bureau  and  on  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Cincinnati  Public  Schools 
for  1914. 

56 


While  mental  defectives,  especially  those  who  have  been  trained  by 
special  methods,  are  not  necessarily  destined  to  complete  industrial 
failure,  they  are  not  qualified  to  profit  by  all-round  vocational  courses. 
Only  those  girls  whose  normality  is  established  should  be  entered  in  a 
school  which  prepares  for  the  highly  skilled  work  of  garment-making. 

The  office  which  issues  the  Employment  Certificates  is  virtually 
the  one  which  enforces  the  child  labor  law.  All  reports  of  violations 
of  the  child  labor  law  received  from  the  children  are  at  once  referred 
to  the  department  of  factory  inspection  for  investigation.  The  most 
important  agency  of  enforcement,  however,  i?  the  truancy  department. 
Unfortunately,  under  the  law  of  1913,  this  kind  of  co-operation  with 
the  truancy  department  is  possible  only  for  boys.  No  boy  between 
15  and  16  can  drop  out  of  school  unless  he  actually  secures  a  position. 
If  he  leaves  a  position  and  his  certificate  is  returned  to  the  office, 
the  truant  officer  then  hunts  him  up  and  sees  to  it  that  he  either 
returns  to  school  or  gets  another  position.  Since  girls  are  allowed  to 
drop  out  of  school  at  sixteen  years  without  the  issuance  of  a  certificate 
and  the  truant  officer  has  no  authority  to  see  that  they  are  either  at 
work  or  in  school,  we  have  no  such  system  of  enforcement  for  them. 
The  result  is  that  the  present  law  is  being  poorly  enforced  in  the  case 
of  girls. 

In  addition  to  the  office  which  issues  the  Employment  Certificates 
and  the  Department  of  Psychological  and  Sociological  Research,  the 
Vocation  Bureau  also  includes  a  Placement  office  for  children  up  to 
eighteen  years  of  age.  This  office,  which  was  established  after  four 
years  of  preparatory  work  by  the  two  related  departments,  is  engaged  in 
finding  positions  for  any  young  person  of  working  age  who  applies 
for  assistance.  It  began  work  in  January,  1915,  and  in  the  following 
spring  was  placed  entirely  under  the  management  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. The  general  aim  of  the  Placement  Office  is  to  give  to  these 
boys  and  girls  who  either  from  choice  or  because  of  economic  pressure 
in  the  home  are  leaving  school  to  enter  industrial  and  commercial  life 
the  same  guidance  and  supervision  which  would  have  been  theirs  as 
students  had  they  remained  in  school.  This  office  makes  every  effort 
to  keep  the  child  longer  in  school.  It  seeks  to  stimulate  the  child's 
ambition  by  pointing  out  the  wider  range  of  opportunities  open  to  boys 
and  girls  of  more  education;  it  confers  with  the  child's  parents  and 
helps  him  to  find  part-time  employment  after  school.  For  those  chil- 
dren who  go  to  work,  it  tries  to  secure  a  careful  placement,  to  follow 
this  up  with  care,  encouragement  and  stimulation.  Its  function  is 
that  of  vocational  guardianship  for  the  young  worker. 

The  Vocational  Service  Department  of  the  public  schools  has  for 
its  purpose  the  coordination  of  the  various  branches  and  departments 
of  school  activities  with  the  future  vocational  life  of  the  pupil.  It 
encourages  the  pupil  to  look  forward  to  self-support  and  seeks  to  pre- 
pare him  to  regard  his  vocational  activity  also  as  a  social  activity. 
In  general,  it  makes  an  effort  to  connect  the  study  of  vocational  life 
with  the  study  of  community  life  and  to  correlate  vocational  informa- 
tion where  possible  with  other  school  subjects.  This  department  has 
co-operated  with  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  in  making  the  series  of 
vocational  surveys,  of  which  the  present  study  of  the  Clothing 
Industry  is  a  part. 

57 


The  passage  of  the  child  labor  law  of  1913  put  increased  respon- 
sibilities upon  the  school.  Of  the  5,664  girls  between  the  ages  of  14 
and  16  years  in  May,  1913,  only  those  who  had  procured  working 
certificates  previous  to  August,  1913,  were  permitted  to  go  to  work. 
Of  the  5,495  boys  between  the  ages  of  14  and  16,  only  those  under  15 
who  had  procured  working  certificates  previous  to  August,  1913, 
were  permitted  to  go  to  work.  This  increased  very  materially  the 
school  enrollment  of  bo}^  between  the  ages  of  15  and  16  and  of  girls 
between  the  ages  of  14  and  16.  The  effect  of  the  law  was  most  notice- 
able in  the  increase  of  the  enrollment  in  the  sixth  grade  for  1914  as 
compared  with  the  enrollment  for  1913  and  1912.  Similarly,  the 
enrollment  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  was  increased  in  1913  by  the 
establishment  of  the  compulsory  Continuation  Schools.  Many  pupils 
remained  in  school  in  order  to  complete  the  eighth  grade,  since  they 
would  have  otherwise  been  compelled  to  attend  Continuation  School. 
The  effect  of  these  laws  in  increasing  the  enrollment  of  the  three  upper 
grades  of  the  elementary  schools  is  seen  in  Table  X. 

TABLE  X. 

Enrollment  in  Cincinnati  Public  Schools  by  Grades  for  1910-1914.* 


GRADE 

School  Year  Ending  June  30 

Percentage  of 
increase 
between  1912 
and  1914 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

Kindergarten 

2,353 
6,337 
5,121 

4,984 
4,779 
4,227 
3,550 
2,868 
2,163 
1,356 
718 
472 
315 

2,590 
6,452 
5,176 
5,136 

4,872 
4,387 
3,436 
2,802 
2,156 
1,509 
788 
491 
398 

2,678 
6,700 
5,217 
5,240 
5,059 
4,756 
3,929 
3,057 
2,273 
1,573 
1,037 
596 
463 

2,980 
7,124 
5,455 
5,396 
5,195 
4,895 
3,926 
3,227 
2,518 
1,755 
1,094 
697 
564 

3,050 

7,058 
5,521 
5,423 
5,230 
5,006 
4,336 
3,270 
2,697 
1,872 
1,112 
728 
685 

14.0 
5.3 

5.9 
3.5 
3.4 
53 

10.4 
7.0 
18.7 
19.0 
7.2 
22.1 
47.9 

First  Grade 

Second  Grade 

Third  Grage. 

Fourth  Grade. 

Fifth  Grade  
Sixth  Grade  

Seventh  Grade  
Eighth  Grade  
First  Year  High  School  
Second  Year  High  School.  .  .  . 
Third  Year  High  School  
Fourth  Year  High  School.  .  .  . 

Total  

39,243 

40,193 

42,578 

44,826 

46,001 

8.0 

Corresponding  to  the  increase  of  attendance  above  the  fifth  grade, 
the  decrease  in  the  number  of  working  certificates  granted  under  the 
new  child  labor  law  was  also  very  marked.  The  number  dropped 
from  2,450  in  1912-1913  to  1,207  in  1913-14;  that  is,  less  than  half 
as  many  working  certificates  were  issued  in  the  latter  year.J  Of  the 
1,207  certificates,  749  were  granted  to  girls  and  458  to  boys.  Previous 
to  the  law  of  1913,  about  the  same  number  was  granted  to  boys  and 
girls.  But  the  new  provisions  make  it  necessary  for  girls  to  have 
working  papers  for  two  years — between  16  and  18 — while  the  boys 
need  to  secure  them  for  one  year  only,  from  15  to  16.f 

*  Compiled  from  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  Cincinnati  Public  Schools,  1910-1914. 
t  Annual  Report,  Cincinnati  Public  Schools,  1914,  page  277. 
t  Annual  Report,  Cincinnati  Public  Schools,  1914,  page  275. 

58 


The  positions  in  which  this  group  of  boys  and  girls  was  placed  are 
shown  in  Table  XI. 

TABLE  XI. 

Summary  Table  of  Occupations  First  Positions  September  1,  1913, 

to  August  31,  1914. 


ERRANDS 

BOYS 

GIRLS 

TOTAL 

No. 

% 

No. 

% 

No. 

% 

Business  Firms  

159 
14 
51 

34.7 
3.1 
11.1 

4 

.5 

163 
14 
51 

Wagon  Boys  

Public  Service  

Total  Errand  Employment.  .  . 

FACTORIES 

Shoe  
Metal  

224 

39 
18 
5 
2 
1 

33 

48.9 

8.5 
3.9 
1.1 
.4 
.2 

7.2 

4 

82 
4 
53 
13 
20 
13 
45 

.5 

11. 
.5 
7.1 
1.7 
2.7 
1.7 
6. 

228 

121 
22 
58 
15 
21 
13 
78 

18.9 

Paper  Goods  

Candy  

Cigar  
Garter  

Miscellaneous  

Total  Factory  Employment.  .  . 

Department  Stores  
Office  Work  

98 

32 
18 
13 
10 
10 

56 

21  3 

6.9 
39 
2.8 
2.2 
2.2 

n's 

230 

199 
60 
13 
168 
14 
15 
45 

30.7 

26.6 
8.1 
1.7 
22.4 
1.9 
2.1 
6. 

328 

231 
78 
26 
178 
24 
15 
99 

27.1 

19.1 
6.5 
2.2 
14.7 
2.3 
1.2 
8.2 

Groceries,  Meats,  Teas,  etc 

Sewing  and  Tailoring   .  . 

Engraving,  Printing,  Binding 

Laundries  

Miscellaneous  Occupations  

Grand  Total  .  . 

459 

100. 

748 

100. 

1,207 

100. 

A  comparison  of  this  table  of  girls'  and  boys'  occupations  with  the 
occupations  of  adults  and  children,  as  shown  in  Table  II  on  page  31, 
indicates  to  some  extent  whether  the  new  generation  of  wage-earners 
is  following  in  the  footsteps  of  the  adult  generation  in  its  choice  of 
occupations.  The  classification  of  the  working-paper  children  given 
in  Table  XI  does  not  quite  cover  the  field  of  juvenile  employment, 
since  working  certificates  are  not  required  by  the  Ohio  law  for  boys 
and  girls  in  domestic  service  with  private  families.  But  there  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  this  group  is  of  sufficient  numerical  importance 
to  alter  materially  the  relative  proportions  of  the  table. 

Of  the  working-paper  children  of  1914,  41.8  per  cent  went  into 
factory  work,  including  sewing  and  tailoring.  A  similar  proportion 
of  the  total  number  of  wage-earners  over  10  years  of  age  in  Cincinnati, 
that  is,  44  per  cent,  were  in  factories  and  workshops.  Considering 
the  women  and  girls  alone  for  comparison,  a  greater  difference  is  seen: 
53  per  cent  of  the  working-paper  girls  went  into  factory  employments, 
while  but  34  per  cent  of  all  girls  and  women  over  10  were  represented 
in  these  occupations.  The  sewing  and  tailoring  trades  alone  employed 
22.4  per  cent  of  the  girls.  These  occupations,  together  with  the 
department  stores  which  employed  26.6  per  cent  accounted  for  almost 

JEighty-nfth  Annual  Report  of  the  Cincinnati  Public  Schools,  1914,  page  284. 

59 


half  of  the  wage-earning  girls.  The  next  largest  group,  11  per  cent, 
went  into  the  shoe  factories.  Judged  by  their  stability,  these  occu- 
pations justify  the  partiality  of  the  young  workers  for  them.  The 
Director  of  the  Vocation  Bureau  found  that  "among  the  girls,  the 
sewing  trade  is  the  most  stable  of  the  large  occupations,  department 
stores  next,  and  shoe  factories  next."* 

The  immediate  effect  of  the  new  child  labor  law  is  to  increase 
the  number  of  girls  between  16  and  18  staying  at  home  and  also  to 
increase  the  number  of  retarded  girls  in  the  upper  grades.  Girls  may 
leave  school  at  sixteen  and  are  allowed  to  stay  at  home  without  cer- 
tificates. This  period  is  not  necessarily  one  of  idleness,  but  it  removes 
the  girls  from  further  discipline  and  training,  of  which,  as  a  future  wage- 
earner,  she  stands  so  much  in  need  and  which  the  modern  wage-earner's 
home,  even  less  than  a  purely  academic  school,  is  not  equipped  to 
supply.  The  only  way  to  meet  the  real  needs  of  these  girls  is  for  the 
school  to  establish  vocational  courses  and  trade-preparatory  classes. 
This  will  help  to  counteract  the  tendencies  towards  disorganization  and 
purposeless  waiting  produced  by  the  present  restrictions  on  the  girl 
wage-earner  under  eighteen. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  girls  who  were  compelled  to  remain  in  school 
as  a  result  of  the  new  law,  helped  to  increase  the  amount  of  retardation. 
The  Vocation  Bureau  found  that  the  additional  two  years  of  age  re- 
quired of  girls  did  not  mean  an  additional  two  grades  in  school,  f  Of 
the  749  girls  who  received  their  working  papers  in  1913-1914,  91  per 
cent  were  retarded;  and  of  the  458  boys,  66  per  cent  were  retarded. 

This  means  that  thousands  of  girls  leave  school  every  year  who 
have  no  interest  in,  or  no  ability  for,  the  high  school  course,  and 
inevitably  no  interest  in  the  professional  or  technical  courses  to  which 
the  high  school  leads.  Experience  in  the  past  decade  has  shown  that 
great  numbers  of  these  children  respond  to  specialized  vocational 
education  fitted  to  their  needs.  While  vocational  education  is  not  a  pan- 
acea for  all  educational  ills,  it  is  the  cure  for  the  "misfit"  whose  brain 
responds  best  to  the  problem  that  employs  his  hands. 

To  meet  these  new  conditions  in  Cincinnati,  several  special  ele- 
mentary classes  have  been  established  for  girls  who  have  been  compelled 
to  remain  in  school  under  the  new  law.  These  classes  afford  an  oppor- 
tunity to  work  out  a  differentiated  course  of  study  in  the  elementary 
schools  beyond  the  Sixth  Grade  for  girls  who  do  not  expect  to  attend 
the  high  school.  J  The  immediate  situation  is  a  peculiarly  favorable 
time  for  the  initiation  of  pre vocational  and  vocational  work.  The 
girls  who  are  forced  back  into  the  schools  by  the  new  law  would  prove 
unwilling  pupils  of  the  old  regime  and  the  school  can  well  afford 
to  cancel  at  least  a  part  of  this  unwillingness  by  the  provision  of  more 
congenial  courses. 

Ohio  was  among  the  first  of  the  States  to  pass  a  compulsory  con- 
tinuation school  law.  This  law,  passed  in  1910,  made  part-time 
school  attendance  compulsory  to  15  years  of  age  for  boys  and  girls 
who  had  not  completed  the  eighth  grade.  Children  were  permitted  to 
go  to  work  at  14  years  of  age  provided  they  could  meet  the  require- 

t  Eighty-fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Cincinnati  Public  Schools,  1914,  page  283. 
J  Eighty-fifth  Annual   Report  of  the  Cincinnati  Public  Schools,  1914,  page  36. 
*  Eighty-fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Cincinnati  Public  Schools,  1914,  page  286. 

60 


ments  of  the  child  labor  law,  which  were,  for  both  boys  and  girls, 
ability  to  pass  the  5th  grade  test,  the  actual  securing  of  a  position, 
and  passing  a  health  examination.  The  new  law  nullifies  the  continu- 
ation clause  of  the  compulsory  education  law  relating  to  girls  but 
remains  operative  for  boys  between  15  and  16,  who  have  not  finished 
the  eighth  grade. 

The  Compulsory  Continuation  Classes  which  were  organized  in 
1911  operated  under  the  legal  provision  that  their  pupils  should 
attend  not  less  than  four  hours  a  week,  between  the  hours  of  8  A.  M. 
and  5  P.  M.  With  the  aim  of  bringing  the  school  and  the  industries 
nearer  together,  classes  were  organized  in  twelve  centers;  the  Guil- 
ford  School  received  pupils  from  8  A.  M.  to  5  P.  M.,  eight  centers 
received  them  from  4  P.  M.  to  5  P.  M.,  and  six  centers  from  1  P.  M. 
to  5  P.  M.  on  Saturdays.  The  Saturday  sessions  was  granted  to  meet 
the  need  of  young  wage-earners  known  as  "piece-workers,"  who 
selected  this  period  as  most  convenient  for  their  interests.  In  all  cases, 
the  employers  and  children  were  given  the  privilege  of  selecting  the 
hours  of  attendance,  some  choosing  an  hour  a  day  for  four  days,  some 
two  hours  for  two  days,  and  some  four  successive  hours  of  one  day. 
Half  of  the  time  was  devoted  to  general  or  commercial  courses  and  the 
other  half  to  special  or  industrial  training. 

The  revision  of  the  child  labor  laws  brought  about  a  great  de- 
crease in  the  continuation  classes.  The  enrollment  from  1911  to 
1915  is  shown  in  Table  XII. 

TABLE  XII. 
Enrollment  in  Cincinnati  Continuation  Schools  by  Years  1911-1915. 


Year 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 

1911-1912.. 

1227 

1541 

2768 

1912-1913  
1913-1914  
1914-1915  

1670 
811 
489 

1575 

778 
229 

3245 
1589 
718 

With  the  decrease  of  attendance  in  the  compulsory  classes,  as  shown 
by  the  table,  the  voluntary  continuation  classes  received  more 
attention. 

The  establishment  of  special  industrial  classes  for  girls  who  in- 
tend to  leave  school  at  the  age  of  sixteen  is  a  direct  effort  to  provide 
for  the  group  of  girls  who  were  formerly  in  the  compulsory  continu- 
ation classes.  Five  centers  were  opened  with  courses  in  home,  indus- 
trial, and  academic  courses.  The  hours  of  attendance  were  adjusted 
in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  afternoons  free.  The  girls  were  per- 
mitted to  attend  school  four  hours  a  day  for  six  days  of  the  week,  a- 
total  of  twenty-four  hours,  the  full  time  required  by  law.  The  number 
of  girls  who  entered  these  classes  was  126. 

During  this  time  of  adjustment,  these  classes  have  served  a  very 
definite  purpose.  They  have  been  the  means  of  dealing  with  a  trans- 
itional situation  and  filling  the  need  until  real  vocational  schools  can 
be  fully  established.  From  those  classes,  as  well  as  from  the  grades, 

61 


it  is  expected  that  the  girls  will  come  who  enter  the  garment-making 
courses  of  the  vocational  schools  and  other  trade  preparatory  courses 
of  these  schools. 

Classes  for  instruction  in  household  arts  and  other  branches  are 
conducted  in  any  center  where  twenty  or  more  women  make  a  request 
for  a  definite  line  of  instruction.  These  classes  meet  once  a  week  in  a 
two-hour  session.  Courses  are  given  in  plain  sewing,  dressmaking, 
millinery,  cookery,  dietetics,  nursing,  and  sanitation.  Lectures  with 
discussion  are  given  on  subjects  relating  to  child  welfare  and  house- 
hold management.  The  aim  in  this  work  is  to  give  to  women,  and 
to  girls  over  sixteen  who  have  left  school,  specific  training  in  one  branch, 
and  an  opportunity  for  the  study  of  problems  of  vital  interest  in  the 
home,  industry,  and  the  community.  Two  thousand  girls  and  women 
are  enrolled  in  these  classes. 

A  type  of  vocational  training  already  developed  by  the  Cincinnati 
public  school  system  is  found  in  the  school  of  salesmanship  organized 
in  1911.  Thirty  employers  gave  their  endorsement  to  the  plan  and 
the  200  young  women  who  wished  to  take  the  course  were  excused 
from  work  one-half  day  each  week  without  loss  of  pay.  A  graduate  of 
the  Boston  School  of  Salesmanship  was  placed  in  charge.  Later  a 
teacher  of  salesmanship  was  assigned  to  the  mercantile  establishments 
to  do  follow-up  work  with  the  pupils  of  the  continuation  classes  and  to 
teach  salesmanship  in  connection  with  these  visits. 

This  year  classes  are  being  conducted  in  all  stores  whose  officials 
have  requested  the  co-operation  of  the  public  schools,  in  the  Contin- 
uation School,  and  in  one  of  the  High  Schools.  Many  of  the  High 
School  students  are  working  in  the  stores  after  school  and  on  Satur- 
days. The  enrollment  in  the  salesmanship  classes  this  year  is  279. 

"In  all  this  movement  for  co-operative  education,"  says  the  Super- 
intendent of  the  Public  Schools,  "by  means  of  which  the  schools  and 
the  commercial  and  industrial  establishments  are  brought  into  closer 
relations  for  educational  purposes,  we  need  to  realize  that  there  are 
three  parties  directly  involved:  The  employers,  who  desire  and  need 
more  skilled  and  intelligent  workers;  the  employees,  whc  desire  and 
need  to  be  better  prepared  for  the  work  they  are  now  doing,  or  in  which 
they  are  to  engage,  and  better  prepared  for  positions  of  increased 
responsibility  and  pay;  and  the  public,  who  desire  and  need  a  better 
service.  The  school  authorities  wish  to  serve  both  employer  and  em- 
ployee, but  they  occupy  middle  ground;  they  cannot  serve  either  to 
the  injury  of  the  other;  they  must  have  the  confidence  of  both.  If 
conflicts  of  interest  appear,  they  must  decide  always  in  favor  of  the 
public,  whom  they  directly  represent,  and  whose  interests  are  superior 
to  those  of  either  employer  or  employee. 

"With  this  position  clearly  understood  and  accepted,  I  have  no 
hesitation  in  sending  teachers  into  commercial  and  industrial  estab- 
lishments to  perform  their  work  under  conditions  most  favorably 
for  teaching  the  theory  that  is  to  be  wrought  out  into  practice,  under 
real  commercial  and  industrial  conditions. 

"In  this  way  we  may  be  able  to  establish  most  effectively  a  more 
vital  connection  between  work  and  study,  between  theory  and  practice, 
instruction  and  its  application;  and  thus  we  shall  provide  educational 

62 


opportunity  that  makes  for  better  and  more  intelligent  workers  who 
shall  render  more  acceptable  service  to  both  the  employer  and  the  public. 
And  this,  I  believe,  is  a  legitimate  function  of  public  education." 

The  establishment  of  garment-making  courses  is,  logically  and  prac- 
tically, the  next  step  in  the  development  of  co-operative  education 
in  Cincinnati.  We  have  seen  that  the  group  of  girls  who  enter  the  sewing 
and  tailoring  trades  form  22  per  cent  of  all  the  girls  going  to  work. 
In  numbers,  they  are  only  second  to  the  group  of  girls  who  go  to  work 
in  the  department  stores  and  for  whom  a  program  of  vocational  train- 
ing is  already  well  under  way.  In  method  and  in  principle,  the 
establishment  of  vocational  courses  for  garment- workers  accords  with 
what  has  been  begun  in  the  line  of  vocational  education.  It  is  an 
organic  outgrowth  of  present  conditions  in  the  public  schools  and  in  the 
local  garment  industry. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Descriptive  Analysis  of  the  Garment  Industries. 

For  a  survey  of  a  group  of  trades  or  industries  for  the  purpose  of 
vocational  education,  it  is  necessary  to  group  or  classify  the  various 
branches  of  the  industry  according  to  fundamental  or  dominating 
factors  which  affect  the  making  of  the  product.  The  classification  used 
for  this  study  as  indicated  in  the  previous  chapter  lays  emphasis  upon 
three  points  which  underlie  trade  and  technical  requirements  for  each 
group  as  well  as  each  individual  industry  within  the  group.  These 
are  type  of  product,  materials  or  fabrics  used  for  the  product,  and 
type  and  adjustment  of  machines. 

There  are  three  general "  groups  of  garment  industries  in  Cincin- 
nati, namely:  (1)  the  clothing  or  tailoring  industries;  (2)  the  cotton 
garment  industries;  and  (3)  allied  factory  sewing  industries.  The 
clothing  or  tailoring  industry  is  divided  into  three  main  groups:  (1) 
tailor-to-the-trade  product,  which  includes  made-to-order  suits,  over- 
coats, top  coats,  and  palm  beach  suits;  (2)  men's  and  boys'  clothing, 
which  includes  the  manufacture  of  suits,  overcoats,  top  coats,  uniforms, 
and  trousers;  and  (3)  cloaks,  suits  and  skirts  for  women.  The  cotton 
goods  garment  industry  is  divided  into  two  main  groups:  (1)  those 
which  use  light  weight  cotton  fabrics  and  (2)  those  which  use  heavy 
weight  cotton  fabrics. 

The  light  weight  garments  are  (1)  shirts,  which  include  men's 
dress  shirts,  negligees,  work  shirts  and  boys'  blouses;  and  (2)  women's 
wear,  which  includes  waists,  house-dresses,  wrappers,  aprons,  kimonos, 
and  children's  dresses.  Heavy  weight  cotton  garments  are  duck 
coats,  overalls,  jumpers,  and  khaki  trousers.  The  allied  factory 
sewing  industries  which  make  wearing  apparel  are  the  hat  and  cap 
industry,  men's  neckwear,  and  machine-sewn  straw  hats. 

The  rank  of  the  different  garment  industries  in  Cincinnati  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  number  of  employees  and  the  amount  of  money 
paid  in  wages  to  workers  for  the  year  ending  December  31st,  1914,  is  as 
follows:  (1)  men's  and  boy's  clothing,  (2)  tailors-to-the-trade,  (3) 
cloak,  suit  and  skirt  industry,  (4)  shirts,  (5)  overalls,  (6)  hats  and 
caps,  (7)  men's  neckwear,  and  (8)  kimonos  and  wrappers.* 

*  Report  of  the  State  Industrial  Commission  of  Ohio,  December  31,  1914. 

63 


All  garment  factories  use  the  same  general  type  of  business 
organization  with  three  departments  for  carrying  on  the  business:  (1) 
the  office,  which  includes  the  financial  department  of  the  firm,  the 
bookkeeping,  the  factory  production  records,  and  correspondence; 
(2)  the  factory,  which  includes  the  workrooms  or  shops;  and  (3)  the 
sales  department,  which  includes  the  advertising  and  selling  of  the 
product.  The  office  and  sales  departments  offer  an  interesting  field  for 
vocational  studies,  but  represent  types  of  work  wholly  different  from  the 
sewing  industries  and  are  therefore  not  included  in  this  report,  which  is 
concerned  more  particularly  with  the  occupations  of  women  engaged  in 
making  the  product.  Contracting  shops  seldom  have  more  than  a  single 
workroom  in  which  workers  are  engaged  in  machine-sewing,  hand-sew- 
ing, and  pressing.  These  shops  have  no  sales  department,  no  office, 
and  only  the  simplest  bookkeeping. 

Four  distinct  types  of  work  are  performed  in  the  garment  factories. 
These  are  cutting  and  pressing,  which  are  almost  exclusively  men's 
employments,  and  hand-sewing  and  machine-sewing,  in  which  women, 
and  to  some  extent  men  as  well,  are  employed.  A  few  of  the  garment 
industries,  such  as  the  making  of  overalls,  shirts,  kimonos,  and  wrap- 
pers, eliminate  the  hand-sewing  from  the  factory  by  the  use  of  specially 
constructed  machines  for  making  button-holes,  sewing  on  buttons, 
and  tacking  or  staying  seams;  but  other  industries  use  such  hand- 
sewing  as  basting,  making  button-holes,  and  hand-felling  extensively. 
The  cutting  and  pressing  and  machine-sewing  are  used  in  every  fac- 
tory, but  with  modifications  suited  to  the  demands  of  the  particular 
industry. 

Important  points  of  difference  in  the  garment  industries  which  are 
generally  acknowledged  by  the  trade  but  are  little  known  to  the  lay- 
man are  the  different  types  of  mechanical  ability,  manipulative  skill, 
and  ability  to  use  and  control  the  power-sewing  machines  which  are 
required  for  the  construction  of  various  kinds  of  garments.  Although 
only  partially  standardized,  these  qualifications  are  so  generally  recog- 
nized by  the  trade  that  workers  who  are  experienced  in  one  line  of  gar- 
ment-making may  not  be  employed  in  another,  and  change  from  one 
to  the  other  virtually  means  learning  a  new  trade.  Persons  skilled 
in  tailoring  work,  for  example,  are  not  likely  to  succeed  as  operators 
in  factories  which  make  garments  of  cotton  or  silk  goods.  A  dress 
or  wrapper-maker  does  not  become  a  shirt-maker  until  she  acquires 
the  skill  and  accuracy  for  shirt-making.  The  variations  in  these  in- 
dustries are  strikingly  paralleled  by  other  industries,  in  which  methods 
of  work  and  type  of  product  are  sufficiently  unlike  to  make  them 
separate  trades,  though  they  belong  to  a  group  commonly  designated  by 
a  single  name.  For  example,  the  tool-maker  and  the  machinist  belong 
to  a  group  known  as  metal  workers.  Both  work  with  iron;  to  some 
extent  they  use  the  same  tools  and  similar  methods  for  achieving  the 
finished  product,  yet  each  is  a  distinct  trade  for  which  special  training 
and  experience  are  required.  Thus,  while  the  divisions  of  work  in  the 
various  branches  of  the  garment  industry  are  similar  and  the  machines 
used  and  the  methods  for  cutting  and  sewing  are  much  alike,  there 
are  differences  which  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  characterize  each 
of  the  various  branches  of  the  industry  as  a  trade. 

64 


Certain  occupations  common  to  all  branches  of  the  industry  are 

sufficiently  alike  in  their  requirements  to  warrant  a  single  analysis 
and  discussion  for  the  entire  group.  It  should  be  understood,  however, 
that  the  demands  upon  the  workers  in  these  occupations  vary  in  the 
different  industries  according  to  the  bulk  of  work  handled,  the  re- 
sponsibility attached  as  in  the  cost  of  fabrics,  and  the  amount  of  time 
that  may  be  spent  in  planning  or  carrying  through  an  operation;  but 
the  demands  upon  the  worker  in  the  way  of  general  intelligence  and 
technical  skill  remain  essentially  the  same  in  all  branches  of  the 
industry.  These  occupations  are  designing,  laying,  marking  and 
cutting  the  cloth,  machine  buttonhole-making,  button-sewing  and 
examining,  and  the  executive  positions  in  the  factory  known  as 
managers,  foremen,  and  forewomen. 

Cutting  is  the  most  important  work  in  the  manufacture  of  garments. 
Patterns  are  designed  and  cut  by  mathematical  rule,  based  upon  simple 
principles  of  geometry.  The  lay-outs  are  planned  so  as  to  save  cloth, 
for  a  fraction  saved  or  wasted  on  each  of  the  hundreds  or  thousands 
of  garments  made  represents  considerable  cloth  in  the  aggregate. 
Measurements  for  a  given  size  and  style  of  garment  must  be  uniform- 
ly accurate,  for  sales  depend  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  product 
continues  to  give  satisfaction.  Garments  are  carefully  planned  so 
as  to  have  them  of  good  and  attractive  design. 

Cutting.  There  are  four  operations  in  cutting  which  may  be  done 
by  a  single  worker  called  the  cutter,  or  subdivided  and  the  less  re- 
sponsible operations  given  to  young  men  assistants  or  apprentices  to 
the  cutter.  These  operations  which  represent  four  distinct  occupations 
in  all  large  establishments  are  spreading,  marking,  cutting  and  de- 
signing. In  large  establishments  where  cutting  is  done  on  a  very  large 
scale  and  the  fabrics  used  are  expensive,  as  in  the  clothing  houses, 
the  learners  spend  several  months  as  helpers  in  the  capacity  of  floor 
boy,  pattern  boy,  and  under  collar  cutter  before  being  placed  as  learners 
under  the  spreader.  As  floor  boy,  he  runs  errands  on  the  floor  and  is 
expected  to  become  familiar  with  many  of  the  details  of  the  work; 
as  pattern  boy  he  is  expected  to  become  familiar  with  the  different 
styles,  the  system  of  numbering  used,  and  the  methods  of  caring  for 
them;  as  cutter  of  small  parts,  such  as  the  under  collar  of  the  coat, 
he  gets  his  first  experience  in  the  use  of  patterns  and  shears,  and  the 
handling  of  cloth.  From  this  position,  he  is  advanced  to  the  position 
of  learner  under  the  spreader,  and  so  on  to  the  other  positions  in  the 
scale  as  he  is  able  to  qualify. 

These  subordinate  positions  are  not  used  to  any  great  extent  in 
factories  which  make  a  less  complicated  and  less  expensive  product. 
In  these  factories,  a  learner  may  begin  his  work  as  assistant  to  the 
spreader,  for  which  position  he  may  qualify  later.  The  four  main 
operations  in  cutting  which  are  found  in  all  branches  of  the  garment 
industry  are  described  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Spreading  is  placing  the  cloth  in  lays  or  spreads  ready  for  the  cutter. 
This  is  the  first  of  the  cutting  processes  and  is  done  by  the  learners 
under  the  direction  of  the  cutter.  The  spreader  lays  the  cloth  on  the 
cutting  table  in  lengths  as  designated  by  the  estimates  worked  out  by 
the  cutter,  placing  one  length  upon  the  other  (keeping  them  of  equal 
length),  until  as  many  lays  or  spreads  as  are  needed  have  been  piled  up. 

65 


For  staple  product,  the  lays  are  usually  of  the  same  cloth,  but  in  in- 
dustries which  make  a  larger  variety  of  product,  fabrics  of  different 
colors  or  different  kinds  may  be  spread  for  the  same  lay-out.  The 
worker,  in  spreading  the  cloth,  keeps  the  tension  or  stretch  of  the 
lengths  uniform,  smooths  out  wrinkles,  lays  edges  together  evenly, 
and  makes  the  spreads  of  equal  length.  The  tension  of  the  cloth  is 
important,  since  fabric  stretched  too  much  tends  to  shrink  or  take-up 
when  made  and  garments  become  undersized,  while  wrinkles  in  the 
cloth  tend  to  oversize  variations.  The  accuracy  with  which  each  length 
is  measured  is  an  important  factor  in  saving  cloth,  which  represents 
one  of  the  largest  expense  items  of  the  industry. 

The  length  of  a  spread  may  vary  with  each  garment  made.  They 
vary  also  in  different  factories.  The  number  of  garments  in  each  spread 
varies  also.  There  may  be  one  garment  to  a  spread,  but  usually  there 
are  more.  The  number  is  determined  by  the  number  of  garments  to 
be  made  and  the  space  available  for  cutting  tables.  Some  factories 
prefer  the  very  long  table  so  that  a  number  of  garments  may  be  cut 
from  one  spread,  and  the  parts  of  the  garments  may  be  laid  so  as 
to  utilize  cloth  not  used  in  cutting  the  preceding  garment.  Cloth  may 
be  very  appreciably  saved  in  this  way. 

In  laying  spreads,  especially  a  mixed  spread,  the  worker  must 
keep  in  mind  such  things  as  the  right  and  wrong  side  of  the  cloth,  so 
as  to  lay  them  face  to  face  when  necessary;  the  twill  of  the  cloth,  so 
as  to  know  when  they  need  to  be  reversed,  and  the  matching  of  plaids, 
especially  when  they  are  large  and  must  be  in  the  same  position  on 
each  side  of  the  garment. 

Spreads  are  laid  by  hand  in  the  majority  of  the  factories,  but  spread- 
ing machines  are  also  used.  The  spreading  machine,  or  carrier,  which 
travels  back  and  forth  over  the  table  and  spreads  the  cloth  in  lays, 
is  used  in  factories  when  very  long  lays  and  many  yards  of  fabric  are 
used. 

The  spreader  must  learn  to  know  readily  the  kinds  of  fabrics  he 
uses,  their  qualities  that  need  to  be  considered  in  the  cutting,  such  as 
elasticity,  for  the  accuracy  of  measurements  depends  very  largely  on 
the  amount  of  stretch  that  may  be  allowed  in  laying  a  spread.  Ability 
to  recognize  quickly  the  right  and  wrong  side  of  cloth  demands  good 
eyesight  and  close  attention  to  such  details  as  weave  and  finish.  The 
use  of  stripes  and  plaids  requires  considerable  planning  in  laying  the 
spreads  for  the  cutter.  Although  the  spreader  is  not  called  upon  to 
calculate  the  length  of  the  spreads  or  the  number  to  be  used  in  a  lay- 
out, he  is  expected  to  learn  how  to  make  the  estimates  if  he  is  to  qualify 
later  as  a  cutter. 

Marking  is  tracing  around  the  pattern  with  tailor's  chalk  or  a  pencil 
after  the  position  of  each  part  of  the  pattern  on  the  cloth  has  been  de- 
termined. When  the  edges  of  all  the  lengths  of  cloth  or  spreads  have 
been  placed  in  line,  the  marker  lays  the  parts  of  the  pattern  on  the  cloth 
according  to  a  diagram  which  has  been  planned  and  worked  out  by  the 
cutter.  He  fits  the  parts  edge  to  edge  carefully  and  when  all  have 
been  laid  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  cutter,  who  directs  the  work,  he 
marks  around  the  edge  of  each  part  with  chalk  or  pencil.  The  chalk 
is  used  for  woolen  fabrics  and  dark  cottons;  the  pencil  is  used  for  light 
fabrics,  upon  which  the  chalk  mark  does  not  show. 

66 


The  cloth  used  for  the  pocket  flaps,  cuffs,  and  facings  must  be  cut 
so  that  the  grain  of  the  cloth  will  run  in  the  same  line  as  the  cloth  in  the 
body  of  the  garment.  Plaids  or  stripes  complicate  this  part  of  the  work 
still  further.  Though  seemingly  a  small  matter,  this  part  of  the  work 
is  so  important  that  if  not  satisfactorily  done,  the  appearance  of  the 
garment  is  marred  and  its  marketable  value  materially  lessened.  The 
same  principle  applies  to  some  extent  in  all  garments,  for  even  in  cheap 
product  the  cloth  must  be  used  correctly  in  order  to  get  desired  results. 
Marking  gives  the  young  man  desiring  to  be  a  cutter  his  first 
experience  in  the  use  of  the  entire  pattern.  In  this  work  he  learns  the 
relation  of  one  part  of  the  garment  to  the  other  and  how  the  patterns 
should  be  placed  on  the  cloth  for  the  layout.  He  gets  further  practice 
in  recognizing  the  various  parts  of  the  garment  in  assembling  the  cut 
pieces  into  bundles  of  one  or  more  garments  each  ready  for  the  sewing 
department.  When  helpers  are  not  employed,  the  marker  is  also 
responsible  for  reassembling  the  parts  of  the  patterns  and  replacing  them 
in  their  respective  places  according  to  the  stock  numbers,  styles  and 
sizes. 

Cutting.  When  spreading,  making  the  layout,  and  marking  have 
have  been  mastered,  the  worker  is  ready  for  the  responsible  work  of 
cutting.  He  is  then  a  full  fledged  mechanic,  and  intrusted  with  the 
responsibility  of  cutting  the  cloth  after  the  layout  has  been  made  and 
the  parts  marked  out.  For  this  work,  he  uses  a  hand  knife  or  an  electric 
cutting  knife.  The  band-saw  is  also  used  to  some  extent  for  cutting 
garments.  In  cutting  the  cloth,  the  cutter  follows  closely  the  line 
made  by  the  marker. 

Cutting  a  number  of  layers  of  cloth  —  they  are  laid  in  any  number 
up  to  one  hundred  or  more,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  cloth — 
requires  a  steady  hand  and  a  good  eye.  The  work  requires  an  active 
person,  and  deftness  in  the  use  of  the  hands  and  arms.  The  cutter  is 
also  responsible  for  the  accuracy  of  the  layout,  and  must  inspect  it 
before  any  cutting  is  done.  He  is  also  held  responsible  for  the  use  of 
cloth,  and,  in  some  instances,  for  loss  due  to  carelessness  or  inefficient 
work.  Yardage  is  carefully  checked  up,  and  his  rating  as  a  cutter,  and 
value  to  the  business,  is  determined  by  his  ability  to  get  a  maximum  of 
product  from  a  minimum  of  cloth. 

The  cutter  must  know  the  kinds  of  cloth,  their  qualities,  such 
variations  as  the  percentage  of  wool,  kind  and  amount  of  adulterations 
used,  the  amounts  of  weighting,  shrinkage,  and  elasticity,  and  the  ex- 
.tent  to  which  they  may  affect  the  making  of  the  garment.  He  must 
know  how  to  get  the  greatest  number  of  garments  from  a  given  amount 
of  cloth.  For  this  he  must  figure  to  the  width  as  well  as  the  length. 

Designing.  The  designer  is  the  head  cutter  who  designs  the  styles 
for  the  season,  directs  the  marking  of  the  models,  drafts  the  patterns, 
and  grades  them  to  sizes.  He  plans  the  first  layout  for  economy  of 
materia^and  use  of  the  grain  or  texture  of  the  cloth  in  carrying  out  the 
design,  and  frequently  makes  a  diagram  of  the  lay-out  for  reference. 
He  figures  all  the  yardage  and  trimmings*  for  single  garments  or  the 
number  of  garments  in  the  lay-out,  and  estimates  the  amount  of  goods 
needed  for  carrying  the  season's  business.  He  works  out  the  speci- 

*  Trimmings  in  tailoring  are  buttons,  buckles,  tape,  and  other  finishing  materials 
which  the  dressmaker  calls  findings. 

67 


fications  for  garments  of  every  style  and  size  made  under  his  direction, 
and  gives  directions  for  having  specifications  inserted  on  the  routing 
slips  which  accompany  each  piece  or  bundle  of  work.  He  decides 
what  processes  shall  be  used  in  making  the  garments  and  the  kinds 
and  amount  of  trimmings  to  be  used  for  each  style  and  size.  He  figures 
the  piece  rates,  and  sets  or  helps  to  set  the  piece-rates  for  the  sewing 
and  pressing  processes. 

The  designer  is  frequently  the  executive  head  of  the  work-rooms 
in  clothing  factories,  and  directs  the  manufacture  of  product  which 
depends  largely  upon  workmanship  for  the  successful  carrying  out  of 
designs.  In  those  industries  which  make  a  product  requiring  close 
attention  to  the  details  of  style,  design,  and  workmanship,  the 
designer  gives  practically  all  of  his  time  to  planning  work,  designing  new 
styles,  looking  after  the  work-rooms,  and  directing  the  cutters,  markers 
and  spreaders.  In  other  industries  which  make  a  less  complicated 
product,  and  in  which  the  designing  is  of  less  importance  relatively 
than  the  cutting,  because  less  varied,  the  head-cutter  makes  the 
design  and  does  the  cutting.  In  these  factories  the  cutting  department 
and  sewing  department  are  under  separate  supervision  and  frequently 
not  closely  associated. 

Although  the  young  men  who  spread  the  cloth  and  mark  it  are  not 
wholly  responsible  for  the  working  out  of  estimates  and  planning  lay- 
outs, they  should  have  the  ability  to  learn  these  things  readily  if  they 
expect  to  qualify  as  cutters  and  designers.  Educational  requirements 
for  the  men  in  this  department  are  therefore  virtually  the  same.  They 
should  have  sufficient  knowledge  of  English  to  read  and  write  readily; 
a  knowledge  of  arithmetic  through  fractions  and  percentage  for  fig- 
uring yardage,  making  estimates,  and  pattern  drafting  which  involves 
some  mathematical  principles.  The  assistants  or  learners  who  spread 
the  cloth  and  mark  the  lay-out  serve  two  years  under  a  cutter,  and 
during  that  time  learn  to  apply  their  knowledge  of  arithmetic  to  the 
cutting  of  garments.  Men  become  cutters  after  years  of  satisfactory 
service.  If  they  enter  the  industry  at  sixteen  years,  they  may  be  cut- 
ters at  nineteen  years  of  age.  They  do  not  become  designers  and 
heads  of  cutting  departments,  as  a  rule,  until  they  have  had  several 
years'  experience  as  cutters,  and  have  demonstrated  their  ability  to 
cut  accurately  and  make  attractive  saleable  models. 

Physically,  the  cutter  should  be  active  and  healthy  and  have  suf- 
ficient endurance  to  stand  at  his  work.  Good  eyesight,  a  steady  hand, 
good  judgment  and  a  sense  of  taste  are  necessary.  The  ability  to 
observe  details  quickly  and  accurately  and  sufficient  adaptability  to 
have  these  qualities  develop  with  experience  are  very  essential. 

Buttonhole  Making. 

Machine-made  buttonholes  are  essentially  the  same  for  all  types  of 
garments  though  the  machine  is  adjusted  in  each  case  to  suit  the  weight 
of  the  fabric  and  the  thread  used  for  the  buttonhole.  Two  types  of 
buttonhole  machines  are  in  common  use  in  the  garment  factories — 
the  Singer,  which  is  started  by  a  treadle,  and  the  Reece,  which  is  started 
by  a  hand  or  finger  lever. 

On  the  cheaper  product  such  as  house  dresses,  underwear,  aprons,  and 
working  shirts,  the  worker  spaces  the  buttonholes  as  she  operates  the 

68 


machine ;  but  for  the  expensive  garments  such  as  tailored  coats,  the  spaces 
are  measured  and  marked  by  another  person  who  has  charge  of  the  but- 
tonhole work. 

To  make  the  buttonhole,  the  operator  places  the  cloth  under  the 
presser  so  that  the  buttonhole  will  fall  in  the  right  line  and  at  the  right 
distance  from  the  edge  fo  the  garment,  starts  the  machine  which  makes 
the  number  of  stitches  required  for  the  buttonhole  and  stops  auto- 
matically. The  operator  then  raises  the  presser  foot,  releases  the  work, 
and  inserts  the  cloth  in  position  for  another  buttonhole. 

The  operator  is  responsible  for  two  things  in  this  work  which 
require  constant  attention:  (1)  buttonholes  must  be  kept  in  straight 
alignment  (unless  otherwise  desired),  and  equally  distant  from  the  edge 
of  the  garment;  (2)  the  work  must  be  watched  while  the  buttonhole 
is  being  made,  so  that  the  action  of  the  knife  which  cuts  the  buttonhole 
may  be  stopped  if  the  thread  breaks  or  the  stitches  do  not  fall  in  place 
properly.  In  careful  work,  especially  on  expensive  garments,  consid- 
erable concentration  is  required. 

For  stock  garments,  the  operator  is  required  to  know  each  style 
of  garment  so  that  she  may  follow  the  directions  on  the  routing  ticket 
as  to  number  and  size  of  buttonholes  to  be  made.  She  must  also  know 
how  to  thread  the  machine  and  adjust  the  bobbin  and  understand  the 
action  of  the  machine  well  enough  to  report  defective  action  for  repairs. 

The  operator  who  makes  buttonholes  should  know  how  to  read 
and  write  simple  English  and  have  sufficient  knowledge  of  arithmetic 
to  count  and  to  keep  a  record  for  her  work  and  her  earnings.  She 
should  be  able  to  understand  both  written  and  oral  directions  and  fol- 
low them  accurately. 

Steady  nerves,  good  physique,  good  health,  good  eyesight,  and  en- 
durance are  the  essential  physical  qualifications.  Although  the  making 
of  machine  buttonholes  is  not  considered  arduous,  persons  of  excitable 
or  nervous  temperament  should  not  be  encouraged  to  undertake  it. 
Both  men  and  women  operate  buttonhole  machines.  Young  persons 
are  not,  as  a  rule,  placed  at  this  work  until  after  they  have  become 
accustomed  to  factory  work. 

Button  sewing  is  a  machine  process  used  extensively  for  factory- 
made  garments.  For  this  operation  the  worker  inserts  the  button  in 
a  slot  in  the  presser  foot  of  the  machine,  places  the  work  under  the  presser 
foot  so  that  the  button  will  be  in  the  right  position,  starts  the  machine 
with  a  treadle,  which  automatically  puts  in  the  necessary  stitches 
and  stops  when  the  operation  has  been  completed.  The  operator 
raises  the  presser  foot,  releases  the  work,  and  places  it  in  position  for 
the  next  button.  Another  type  of  machine  places  the  button  automat- 
ically when  the  work  is  in  position  and  the  machine  has  been  started, 
which  reduces  the  demand  upon  the  worker  somewhat. 

Buttons  on  overalls  and  jackets  are  clamped  or  riveted  into  the 
garments.  The  operator  places  the  garment  in  position  in  the  machine 
and  starts  the  machine,  which  drops  the  button,  clamps  it  into  place, 
and  stops.  For  the  better  grades  of  tailor-made  clothing,  buttons 
are  sewed  on  by  hand  so  that  stitches  do  not  show  on  the  wrong  side. 

The  spacing  of  buttons  may  be  done  with  the  buttonholes  as  a 
guide  or  by  the  eye  measurements  when  the  product  is  inexpensive 

69 


and  the  operator  sufficiently  skillful,  or  they  may  be  spaced  and  marked 
by  another  person.  For  tailored  garments,  the  buttonholes  are  usually 
placed  by  the  forewoman  or  other  responsible  worker. 

The  educational,  mental,  and  physical  qualifications  are  practi- 
cally the  same  as  for  buttonhole  making,  though  the  responsibility 
is  not  so  great  as  there  is  less  danger  of  injuring  the  garment.  Button- 
sewing  is  done  by  young  women,  many  of  whom  find  their  first  employ- 
ment in  the  industry  in  this  position.  Later  they  may  qualify  as  but- 
tonhole-makers, as  the  operations  are  sufficiently  alike  to  make  the 
transition  easy  from  one  occupation  to  the  other. 

Examining  is  looking  over  the  finished  product  for  imperfect  or 
unfinished  work  and  clipping  off  loose  ends.  Every  industry  makes 
provision  for  this  kind  of  work,  but  it  varies  widely  according  to  the 
kind  and  grade  of  product.  In  the  tailoring  industries,  examining  is 
done  constantly  so  that  imperfect  work  may  not  pass  far  beyond  the 
worker  responsible  for  it.  On  cheap  product,  the  greater  part  of 
examining  is  done  when  the  product  is  completed. 

For  this  work  the  person  should  have  a  knowledge  of  the  com- 
pleted garment;  she  should  know  how  to  detect  imperfect  work  and 
the  department  to  which  it  should  be  sent  for  repairs,  or  be  able  to 
make  the  necessary  repairs.  She  should  be  skillful  in  the  use  of  the 
scissors  in  clipping  threads  and  have  the  ability  to  do  plain  hand- 
sewing. 

Bright,  alert,  capable  girls  and  women  are  chosen  for  this  work, 
as  it  requires  intelligence  and  reliability.  But  the  work  itself  requires 
little  in  the  way  of  reading,  writing,  computation,  and  knowledge  of 
garment-making.  The  examiner  sits  at  her  work,  as  a  rule,  and  tables 
and  chairs  are  low  so  that  she  may  work  without  strain.  Good  eye 
sight  and  skillful  fingers  are  the  essential  qualifications.  Examining 
does  not  fit  for  other  positions  in  the  factory,  but  for  young  girls  it 
is  considered  a  desirable  place  to  learn  about  the  garments  and  the  ways 
of  the  factory.  In  factories  which  make  a  fine  grade  of  product,  this 
work  is  very  desirable.  In  factories  which  make  an  inexpensive  prod- 
uct which  must  be  turned  out  rapidly,  the  work  is  slightly  varied  and 
requires  less  intelligent  and  skillful  work  than  in  the  factories  which 
make  a  more  complicated  product.  The  work  is  proportionately  less 
desirable,  except  for  beginners  who  may  later  hope  to  do  more  respon- 
sible and  remunerative  work. 

Executive  Positions. 

Executive  positions  in  all  the  branches  of  the  garment  industries 
are  similar  in  character  and  demand;  therefore,  much  the  same  type 
of  responsibility,  training,  and  experience  are  required  in  all  of  them. 
These  executive  positions  are  manager  or  superintendent,  foreman, 
and  forewoman,  and  rank  in  importance  in  the  order  named.  A  larger 
establishment  may  employ  all  four.  Smaller  establishments  may  have 
only  the  foreman  and  the  forewoman,  who  acts  as  an  assistant. 

The  manager  or  superintendent  has  general  supervision  of  the  en- 
tire factory.  He  employs  and  dismisses  workers  and  is  responsible 
for  the  policy^of  the  factory  in  the  employment,  paying,  and  manage- 
ment of  employees.  The  foremen  are  responsible  to  him  for  the  use  of 
raw  materials,  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  output,  the  production 
methods  used,  and  costs. 

70 


The  manager  or  superintendent  must  know  the  details  of  the  manu- 
facture of  the  product  his  factory  makes.  He  must  have  the  ability 
to  estimate  cost  of  materials,  labor,  production,  and  waste;  the  ability 
to  arrange  machinery,  workroom,  and  stockrooms  to  the  best  advantage 
of  the  work  and  the  greatest  comfort  of  the  workers;  and  the  ability 
to  administer  factory  discipline  without  friction.  He  is  responsible 
for  reports  to  the  office  from  the  different  departments,  and  meets 
with  members  of  the  firm  to  discuss  business  policies. 

To  do  this  work  successfully,  a  knowledge  of  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses, of  business  transactions,  of  trade  conditions  that  affect  business, 
and  sufficient  general  education  to  enable  him  to  keep  pace  with  the 
demands  of  industry  are  essential.  Men  in  this  position,  as  a  rule, 
are  those  who  have  learned  the  business  in  the  factory  as  a  worker 
"at  a  bench,"  a  common  phrase  among  tailors,  or  as  a  salesman  of  the 
product;  or  they  may  have  had  experience  in  both  directions.  There 
are  few  exceptions  to  this  rule.  There  seems  to  be  no  custom  as  to  the 
age  at  which  this  responsibility  may  be  assumed,  nor  the  amount  of 
education,  training,  and  experience  that  should  be  required.  Initiative, 
the  ability  to  plan  for  others,  to  direct  and  to  manage  people  without 
difficulty  are  the  personal  qualifications  upon  which  most  emphasis 
is  placed. 

The  foreman  has  charge  of  a  department  or  group  of  departments. 
He  is  responsible  for  the  quality  and  quantity  of  product  turned  out 
in  his  department.  Under  the  system  in  vogue  in  a  number  of  fac- 
tories in  Cincinnati,  the  foreman  is  a  contractor  and  the  department 
is  his  shop  which  he  manages  as  he  thinks  best,  though  in  the  large 
factories  the  foreman  works  under  supervision.  As  a  contractor,  he 
is  manager,  employer,  and  paymaster  for  his  own  shop.  The  foreman 
knows  every  detail  of  the  work  he  directs,  which,  as  in  the  case  in  the 
tailoring  industries,  he  has  learned  as  a  worker  in  the  factory.  He 
inspects  the  work,  plans  the  routing,  watches  the  progress  of  the  work, 
and  checks  it  up  as  it  passes  through  the  department. 

To  be  a  successful  foreman  he  must  know  his  trade  thoroughly, 
and  have  the  ability  to  keep  informed  on  new  methods  of  manufacture. 
An  elementary  education  is  necessary,  and  secondary  education  is 
desirable  for  men  in  this  work.  There  are  successful  foremen  who  have 
had  less  education,  but  they  have  supplemented  insufficient  education 
with  self-instruction  and  application  to  the  work  in  the  factory  which 
have  helped  to  make  up  deficiencies.  These  men  strongly  favor  pre- 
paratory education. 

The  ability  to  get  along  with  people,  to  secure  good  work  from  the 
operators  and  to  keep  work  moving  without  undue  haste  or  friction 
are  the  most  essential  requirements. 

Foremen  are  men  who  have  been  successful  workers  in  the  industry 
and  demonstrated  some  initiative  and  executive  ability.  It  is,  therefore, 
a  position  to  which  some  men  may  look  forward.  Physically  the  fore- 
man should  be  healthy  and  have  sufficient  endurance  to  stand  the  work- 
ing hours.  The  position  of  foreman  is  seldom  held  by  a  man  under 
twenty-five  years  of  age.  He  receives  a  weekly  salary  which  is  deter- 
mined by  the  number  of  people  he  directs,  the  amount  of  business  his 
department  carries,  and  such  personal  and  business  qualifications  as  he 

71 


may  have  which  the  firm  values.  The  contractor  foreman  pays  his 
employees  and  has  for  his  salary  the  amount  of  the  contract  money 
which  remains. 

The  forewoman  is  assistant  to  the  foreman.  To  her  the  foreman 
delegates  such  work  as  placing  and  training  new  workers,  checking  up 
the  work  from  time  to  time  during  the  day.  She  is  always  a  skilled 
workwoman  who  knows  every  detail  of  the  work  she  directs,  and  passes 
judgment  upon  the  work  of  each  employee.  She  repairs  work,  turns 
imperfect  work  back  for  repairs,  and  gives  directions  as  to  the  way  it 
should  be  done.  She  gives  out  work  to  be  begun,  with  directions  as 
to  the  way  it  should  be  done,  and  receives  finished  work. 

An  elementary  education,  and  secondary  education  as  well,  if  it  is 
possible  to  secure  it,  ability  to  deal  with  workers,  to  keep  work  moving 
without  confusion  or  delay,  and  to  keep  workers  busy,  are  the  essential 
qualifications. 

Good  health,  endurance  and  good  eyesight  are  the  most  essential 
physical  qualifications.  Experienced  skilled  workers,  having  tact 
and  the  ability  to  carry  out  directions,  are  chosen  for  this  work. 

The  age  at  which  this  work  may  be  undertaken  varies  from  twenty- 
two  to  thirty  or  thirty -five  years.  Salaries  range  and  are  usually 
about  half  the  amount  paid  to  men  workers.  Like  the  salaries  of 
foremen,  they  are  determined  by  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done,  the 
number  of  workers  to  be  managed,  and  the  number  of  women  available 
for  such  work.  Women  serving  in  this  capacity  who  were  interviewed 
for  this  study  reported  salaries  ranging  from  $12.00  to  $18.00  per 
week.  A  few  receive  a  higher  salary. 

The  Tailoring  Industries. 
Men's  Clothing. 

The  clothing  manufacturers  and  tailors-to-the-trade  make  the  same 
type  of  product  but  use  different  methods  of  manufacture.  Three 
important  features  constitute  the  chief  points  of  difference:  (1)  in  the 
clothing  industry  garments  are  cut  in  bulk  to  stock  measures,  hence 
there  are  no  variations  to  suit  individual  figures ;  tailors-to-the-trade  cut 
garments  separately  to  the  measures  of  the  person  who  is  to  wear  them ; 
(2)  machine  sewing  is  used  almost  exclusively  on  ready-to-wear  clothing ; 
much  of  the  work  on  the  tailor- to- the-trade  product,  especially  on  the 
coat,  is  done  by  hand;  (3)  ready-to-wear  clothing  is  pressed  by  pressing 
machines,  and  hand  pressing  is  not  used  extensively;  for  the  tailor- 
to-the-trade  product,  much  hand  pressing  is  used  though  machine  press- 
ing is  also  used. 

The  three  garments  of  a  man's  suit  are  made  in  separate  departments 
or  "shops"  as  they  are  called  and  each  shop  is  designated  by  the  gar- 
ment made;  thus  there  are  three  distinct  "shops"  in  each  factory: 
(1)  the  coat  shop;  (2)  the  vest  shop,  and  (3)  the  pants  shop.  Each 
of  the  three  shops  has  its  own  set  of  workers  who  seldom  work  upon 
more  than  one  type  of  garment. 

The  division  of  work  in  each  of  these  shops  in  both  the  lines  of  manu- 
facture is  much  the  same,  though  no  two  workrooms  use  exactly 
the  same  divisions  or  combinations  of  operations.  The  similarity  of  the 

72 


tasks  and  methods  of  work  is  sufficiently  great,  however,  to  warrant  a 
single  analysis  which  may  apply  to  both.  It  should  be  understood 
that  all  the  processes  are  not  necessarily  used  in  one  factory. 

Coat-Making. 

There  are  four  groups  of  workers  in  the  coat  shop :  (1)  the  cutters; 
(2)  the  machine  sewers;  (3)  the  hand  sewers;  (4)  the  pressers.  Cutting 
has  already  been  analyzed  and  appears  on  page  65  of  this  report.  Machine 
sewing  is  of  two  types :  basting  and  finishing.  Pressing  is  of  three 
types:  part  pressing,  under  pressing,  and  top  or  off  pressing. 

The  machine  operations  in  order  of  their  importance  are  canvas 
making;  lining  making;  making  of  small  parts  as  pockets,  flaps,  welts, 
and  cuffs;  seaming;  shoulder- joining;  sleeve-making;  machine-pad- 
ding; taping,  and  edge- stitching. 

Operations  are  analyzed  in  order  of  their  importance  rather  than 
in  the  consecutive  order  used  in  the  workroom.  Indeed,  such  a  method 
would  doubtless  lead  to  confusion  except  for  those  familiar  with  the 
industry,  as  the  garment  passes  back  and  forth  among  hand  sewers, 
machine  sewers  and  pressers  many  times  while  it  is  being  made. 

Canvas-making  is  stitching  together  the  pieces  of  canvas  which  are 
used  to  stiffen  and  strengthen  the  upper  part  of  the  fronts  of  a  coat, 
and  joining  to  the  pieces  of  canvas  a  layer  of  cotton  padding.  A  special 
machine  which  makes  a  stitch  resembling  a  herringbone  stitch  is  used 
for  this  operation.  The  work  is  not  exacting,  is  readily  learned,  and, 
as  a  rule,  is  done  by  beginners  who  later  take  up  work  requiring  greater 
skill. 

Lining  making.  The  lining  maker  makes  the  pockets  in  the  lining 
and  joins  the  under-arm  seams.  For  a  description  of  pocket  making 
and  seaming  see  pages  75  and  76. 

Pocket  flaps,  welts,  and  cuffs  are  also  made  by  beginners.  The 
work  consists  of  sewing  the  top  and  lining  together  with  a  plain  seam 
and  turning  the  parts  ready  for  the  presser.  The  workers  who  do  the 
seaming  may  also  stitch  the  edges  after  the  parts  have  been  turned 
and  pressed. 

Seaming  is  sewing  the  part  that  is  being  used  on  the  fronts  of  men's 
coats  at  the  present  time  and  joining  the  under-arm  seam.  For  a  plain 
seam  the  two  edges  of  the  garment  are  laid  together  and  sewed  with  a 
single  row  of  stitching.  In  making  this  seam,  the  worker  holds  in  the 
cloth  or  stretches  it  in  places  to  make  the  garment  fit  the  body.  There 
is  no  rule  for  this  method  of  shaping  a  garment.  It  depends  upon  the 
style  and  the  texture  of  the  cloth. 

This  work  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  garment  and  the  fabric, 
and  skill  in  handling  the  work,  which  is  done  only  by  experienced 
operators.  In  some  factories  this  seam  is  joined  by  the  pocket  makers. 

Shoulder  joining.  The  shoulder  seam  of  a  coat  is  not  joined  until 
after  the  pockets  have  been  made,  the  under-arm  seam  joined,  the 
canvas  basted  into  place,  the  lining  basted  in,  and  the  edges  taped. 
This  process  is  much  like  the  joining  of  the  under-arm  seam,  but  is 
more  difficult  as  there  is  a  larger  bulk  of  work  to  be  managed.  The 

73 


I 

same  methods  for  holding  in  or  stretching  the  cloth  to  make  the  shoulders 
of  the  coat  fit  well  are  used.  When  a  welt  seam  is  used,  the  operator 
turns  the  work  and  puts  in  the  second  row  of  stitching  which  forms  the 
welt. 

Good  judgment,  a  knowledge  of  fabrics,  knowledge  of  coat  making, 
more  than  the  mere  sewing  of  a  seam,  and  skill  in  handling  the  garment, 
are  the  essential  qualifications.  This  work  is  done  only  by  the  exper- 
ienced and  skilled  workers. 

Sleeve  making.  The  sleeves  and  sleeve  linings  are  made  by  the 
same  operator.  The  outer  or  elbow  seam  is  sewn,  the  work  is  turned, 
and  the  second  row  of  stitching  is  put  in.  The  sleeve  is  then  turned 
and  the  inner  seam  is  sewed.  Sleeve-making  requires  much  the 
same  manipulation  of  the  cloth  to  insure  good  shape  and  good  fit  as 
the  seams  of  the  coat.  Qualifications  of  workers  are  the  same  as  for 
shoulder- joining  and  seaming. 

Machine  padding.  The  lapels  and  under  collar  of  the  coat  are  in- 
terlined with  canvas  and  the  interlining  is  tacked  to  the  outer  part  of 
the  coat  with  rows  of  invisible  stitching.  This  process  which  is  called 
padding  is  done  on  a  special  machine  which  makes  a  stitch  resembling 
cat-stitch  that  catches  into  the  nap  of  the  cloth,  but  does  not  show  on 
the  right  side  of  the  garment.  Padding  is  also  done  by  hand,  but  only 
on  expensive  garments,  as  the  work  is  tedious  and  costly.  In  the  hand 
process  the  cloth  is  "worked  in"  so  as  to  allow  the  lapel  to  roll  or  fold, 
but  in  the  machine  process  it  is  allowed  to  lie  flat  and  the  lapel  is 
rolled  or  folded  in  the  pressing.  The  padding  stitch  is  also  used  for 
felling  the  edge  tape  of  a  coat  for  which  the  machine  or  the  hand- 
method  may  be  used.  This  work  is  done  by  young  women.  It  re- 
quires only  a  few  weeks  to  learn  to  operate  the  machine  and  handle 
the  work.  It  does  not  require  so  high  a  degree  of  skill  or  knowledge 
of  garments  as  the  seaming  or  sleeve-making. 

Taping  is  stitching  a  stay-tape  to  the  edge  of  the  garment  to  keep 
it  from  stretching.  The  back  of  the  neck,  tfie  arms'  eyes,  and  the 
front  edges  of  a  coat  and  vest  are  taped.  The  edge  tape  on  a  coat  is 
usually  sewed  in  with  the  seam  when  the  front  facing  is  being  sewed 
to  the  coat.  The  edge  to  be  taped  is  laid  under  the  presser  foot  of  the 
single-needle  lock-stitch  machine  with  the  tape  above.  The  garment 
is  manipulated  with  the  left  hand  and  the  tape  with  the  right.  For 
this  process  the  edge  of  the  garment  is  held  and  the  tape  stretched. 
The  amount  of  cloth  held  in  and  the  places  where  cloth  is  held  in,  and 
the  extent  to  which  the  tape  is  stretched  are  determined  by  the  opera- 
tor who  is  not  qualified  to  do  the  work  until  she  is  sufficiently  skilled 
to  use  eye  measurements  for  it. 

Good  judgment,  good  eyesight,  a  steady  hand  (for  the  line  of 
stitching  must  be  straight),  and  skill  are  the  essential  qualifications 
for  taping.  Experienced  young  women  and  some  men  are  employed 
for  this  work. 

Pockets — Patch  Pocket :  The  simplest  pocket  is  the  patch  pocket, 
which  is  a  piece  of  cloth  like  the  garment,  shaped  for  appearance's 
sake  or  convenience  to  the  user,  and  sewed  on  the  outside  of  the  gar- 
ment. The  piece  is  hemmed  at  the  top  with  a  narrow  tape  inserted 
in  the  hem  for  strength.  The  patch  pocket  is  sometimes  lined,  but 
more  frequently  the  edges  are  turned  in  and  the  pocket  stitched  on  the 

74 


coat  with  two  rows  of  stitching  which  give  it  strength  and  finish.  In 
putting  the  pocket  on  the  coat,  the  worker  lays  the  coat  under  the 
presser  foot,  places  the  pocket  on  the  garment  so  as  to  match  stripes 
or  plaids,  stitches  around  the  edges  and  fastens  the  corners  so  as  to 
prevent  ripping. 

Flap  Pocket:  The  flap  pocket  is  more  complicated  than  the  patch 
pocket  and,  like  all  set-in  pockets,  the  work  requires  great  skill  and 
accuracy,  for  the  cloth  must  be  cut  to  insert  the  pocket,  and  the  open- 
ing, once  spoiled,  can  not  be  mended.  Hence,  a  mistake  means  the 
loss  of  the  entire  piece  of  cloth  and  of  the  time  spent  in  having  the 
piece  replaced. 

In  making  the  flap  pocket,  the  worker  places  the  coat  under  the 
presser  foot,  lays  a  strip  of  strong  tailors'  linen  over  the  pocket  line  on 
the  wrong  side  of  the  cloth,  and  on  the  right  side  of  the  cloth  at  the 
lower  edge  of  the  pocket  line  lays  a  facing  strip  of  cloth  like  the  gar- 
ment; over  this  facing  strip  the  piece  of  cotton  cloth  which  makes  the 
pocket. 

These  two  pieces  of  cloth  with  the  linen  underneath  are  stitched 
in  place  with  a  plain  seam,  the  exact  length  of  the  pocket  opening. 
The  flap,  which  has  been  made  and  pressed  beforehand,  with  a  strip 
of  facing  cloth  on  top,  is  stitched  in  the  same  way  along  the  upper  edge 
of  the  pocket  opening.  The  operator  then  cuts  the  pocket  opening 
with  her  scissors,  taking  great  care  to  cut  exactly  on  the  cutter's  chalk 
line  the  exact  length  of  the  opening  required.  The  lower  facing  and 
pocket-piece  are  drawn  through  the  pocket-opening  to  the  wrong  side. 
The  lower  facing-piece  is  turned  over  allowing  the  facing  to  extend 
above  the  seam  line  so  as  to  form  a  binding  on  the  lower  edge  of  the 
pocket.  This  seam  is  pressed  open  by  the  fingers  and  the  facing  is 
stitched  in  the  middle  of  the  open  seam  on  the  right  side.  This  row  of 
stitching  serves  to  hold  the  facing  in  place  and  strengthens  the  edge  of 
the  pocket.  The  lower  facing  piece  is  then  sewed  to  the  pocket  piece. 

The  facing  piece  on  the  top  of  the  pocket  is  turned  back,  the  flap 
turned  down  and  pressed  into  place  by  the  fingers  and  a  row  of  stitch- 
ing placed  in  the  seam  as  in  the  lower  part.  In  placing  the  flap,  the 
operator  must  match  stripes  or  plaid  or  the  grain  of  the  cloth  with 
those  in  the  body  of  the  coat.  The  pocket  ends  are  then  tacked  by 
means  of  several  short  rows  of  stitching  run  back  and  forth  in  exactly  the 
same  line  so  as  not  to  be  seen.  The  work  is  then  turned  over  to  the 
wrong  side  and  the  pocket  piece  stitched  around  the  desired  size  and 
the  surplus  material  trimmed  off.  This  completes  the  pocket  ready 
for  pressing.  All  pockets  are  made  much  the  same  way  so  that  the 
processes  described  in  this  paragraph  will  apply  more  or  less  to 
the  variations  which  follow. 

The  piped  pocket :  The  piped  pocket  is  made  in  the  same  way  as 
the  flap  pocket  except  that  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  edges  are 
piped.  The  top  facing  is  turned  down  to  cover  the  seam  and  fill  the 
space  taken  up  by  the  seam  and  is  then  stitched  in  the  seam  as  described 
for  the  lower  facing  in  the  paragraph  above.  This  pocket,  while  requir- 
ing practically  the  same  work  as  the  flap-pocket,  demands  a  little  more 
careful  work,  as  the  piped  edges,  to  give  the  desired  finish,  must  be  very 
straight  and  even,  and  matched  in  pattern  or  weave  with  the  cloth  of 
the  coat.  There  is  no  concealing  flap  to  cover  irregular  edges  of 
imperfect  work. 

75 


The  Welt  Pocket:  The  welt  pocket  which  is  used  for  the  vest 
and  the  breast  pocket  of  the  coat  is  characterized  by  the  set-in  piece 
or  welt  which  is  sewed  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  pocket  and  conceals 
the  opening.  For  this  pocket,  the  linen  stay-piece,  the  facings,  and 
the  pocket-cloth  are  used  as  in  the  other  pockets.  In  stitching  on  the 
parts,  the  welt  which  has  been  previously  made  and  pressed  is  sewed 
to  the  lower  edge  of  the  pocket  and  instead  of  being  turned  down  is 
made  to  stand  up  so  as  to  cover  the  pocket-opening.  The  ends  of  the 
welt  pieces  may  be  stitched  down  close  to  the  garment  on  the  outside 
or  they  may  be  set  into  a  slit  in  the  cloth.  When  the  latter  method 
is  used,  it  is  called  inlaid  welt. 

The  faced  pocket:  The  faced  pocket  is  made  with  a  facing  of 
one  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  width  on  the  outside  of  the  coat 
around  the  pocket  opening.  This  facing  which  protects  and  strengthens 
the  pocket  opening  is  used  on  uniforms  and  working  clothes.  The 
work  is  much  the  same  as  the  piped  pocket  with  the  exception  that  the 
facing-piece  is  brought  to  the  outside  instead  of  the  inside  of  the  coat. 

The  receptacle  part  of  the  pocket  is  made  in  various  ways.  Double 
pockets — a  small  one  inside  of  the  larger  one — are  sometimes  used. 
A  patented  pocket,  known  as  the  Bartel  pocket,  named  for  the  inventor, 
has  a  fold  in  the  lining  of  the  side  next  to  the  inside  of  the  garment 
which  prevents  the  outer  part  of  the  garment  from  stretching  when 
the  pocket  is  filled. 

Pocket-making  is  considered  the  most  difficult  machine-operation 
on  a  coat  and  the  work  is  done  only  by  the  most  skilled  operators, 
as  it  is  done  on  the  single-needle  sewing  machine  without  the  aid  of 
any  devices  to  keep  the  work  uniform.  Good  judgment;  good  eye- 
sight; accuracy  in  making  the  rows  of  stitching,  and  grading  the 
depth  of  seam  which,  if  not  perfectly  straight,  spoils  the  shape  of 
the  pocket  opening;  skill  in  handling  the  scissors  and  the  garment, 
and  in  stopping  the  machine  quickly,  so  that  stitching  may  not  be  run 
beyond  the  end  of  the  opening,  are  the  essential  requirements  for  this 
operation. 

Women  experienced  in  machine-sewing  and  skilled  in  handling  tailor- 
ed work  are  trained  in  the  factory  to  make  pockets.  It  requires  these 
women  from  two  to  four  months  to  learn  to  make  pockets  successfully. 

Edge  stitching.  The  facing  of  a  coat  or  vest  is  turned  back,  the 
seam  is  pressed  flat  with  the  fingers  and  sometimes  basted,  and  a  row 
of  stitching  called  the  edge  stitching  is  put  in  near  the  edge — the  dis- 
tance varying  from  one-eighth  to  three-eighths  of  an  inch.  This  row 
of  stitching  serves  two  purposes:  it  strengthens  the  edge  and  holds 
the  facing  in  place,  and  serves  as  a  finish  or  trimming.  This  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  important  operations  on  a  coat  and  is  done 
only  by  the  most  skilled  workers. 

Good  eyesight,  an  accurate  sense  of  measurements  and  straight 
lines,  and  skill  in  handling  the  garment  are  necessary  qualifications. 
Both  men  and  women  are  employed  for  this  work. 

Hand-sewing  in  the  tailoring  trades  is  basting  and  fine  finishing. 
There  are  six  main  divisions  of  the  basting  which  are  used  on  the  high 
grade  product.  Less  basting  is  used  on  the  cheaper  product.  The 
basting  processes  are  making,  canvas  basting,  sleeve  setting,  edge 
basting,  and  facing  basting,  lining  basting,  and  arm-hold  basting. 

76 


Marking  is  the  simplest  form  of  basting  and  is  done  by  beginners. 
Two  parts  are  laid  together,  and  a  row  of  loose  basting  stitches  of 
double  thread  is  run  into  the  marked  seams  and  the  marked  pockets, 
collar,  or  lapels.  The  thread  is  cut  between  the  two  piles  of  cloth  and 
the  ends  that  remain  are  used  as  guides  for  the  depth  and  position  of 
seams. 

This  work  does  not  require  any  knowledge  of  fabrics  or  the  garment. 
The  ability  to  handle  a  needle  and  scissors  deftly  are  the  chief 
requirements. 

Canvas  basting  is  basting  the  padded  canvas  about  the  shoulders 
and  arms'  eyes  of  the  fronts  of  the  coat.  Long  basting  stitches  are  used 
and  rows  of  stitches  are  run  back  and  forth  so  as  to  hold  the  canvas  in 
place  until  it  is  attached  to  the  coat  permanently  by  the  sewing  in  of 
the  sleeves  and  joining  of  the  shoulder  seams.  This  work  represents 
the  second  grade  of  basting  and  is  usually  done  by  young  women  who 
have  learned  basting  as  markers. 

The  closeness  of  basting  stitches  and  the  amount  of  basting  done 
on  the  canvas  is  determined  by  the  quality  of  the  coat.  Very  little 
basting  is  done  on  the  cheap  grades  of  clothing. 

Only  a  limited  knowledge  of  sewing  and  garment-making  is  required 
for  this  work. 

Sleeve  setting  is  basting  the  sleeve  into  the  arms'  eye  of  the  gar- 
ment so  that  it  will  hang  properly.  The  worker,  guided  by  notches  in 
the  sleeve  and  the  body  of  the  garment,  bastes  the  sleeve  in  place, 
stretching  the  cloth  or  holding  it  in  and  distributing  gathers  so  that  the 
sleeve  will  fit  properly.  This  operation  is  considered  by  tailors  to  be 
the  most  important  in  determining  the  appearance  of  the  coat  and  the 
most  difficult  to  have  done  uniformly  well.  As  in  other  processes  when 
cloth  must  be  manipulated  to  shape  the  garment,  this  process  varies 
with  each  garment  made  and  each  fabric  used. 

Accuracy,  skill  in  handling  the  garment  and  the  fabric,  good  eye- 
sight, and  good  judgment  are  essential  qualifications. 

Women  of  twenty  years  of  age  or  over  who  have  had  experience 
in  sewing  are  trained  in  the  factory  for  this  work. 

Facing  basting.  The  facing  of  a  coat  is  stitched  at  the  edge  and 
turned  back  on  the  underside  of  the  fronts.  When  this  seam  is  turned, 
a  row  of  plain  basting  is  run  along  the  edge  so  as  to  catch  the  seam  and 
hold  it  firmly  in  place.  The  worker  then  lays  the  coat  on  the  table 
and  bastes  the  facing  of  the  coat  to  the  front  by  rows  of  basting  which 
hold  the  facing  in  loosely,  and  the  outer  part  of  the  coat  flat.  This  is 
done  so  that  the  facing  may  be  slightly  shrunken  when  pressed,  and 
thus  make  the  fronts  of  the  coat  fall  toward  the  body  when  worn. 

The  extent  to  which  cloth  should  be  held  in  is  determined  largely 
by  the  shrinking  qualities  of  the  cloth,  hence  the  worker  who  does  the 
basting  must  know  the  fabric  he  is  handling.  He  must  also  be  a  skill- 
ful hand-sewer. 

This  operation  is  done  by  tailors,  usually  men,  and  as  the  quality 
of  the  work  affects  the  appearance  of  the  coat  materially,  it  is  not 
entrusted  to  any  but  experienced  workers. 

Lining  basting  is  tacking  the  lining  to  the  seams  and  inner  edges 
of  the  front  facing  ready  for  the  finishers.  The  worker  lays  the  coat 
on  the  table  with  the  seams  upward,  places  the  lining  on  the  coat, 

77 


seam  to  seam,  and  tacks  the  lining  in  place  along  each  seam  and  then 
bastes  the  edge  of  each  front  to  the  front  facing.  The  lining  is  also 
basted  at  the  shoulders  and  about  the  arms'  eyes  to  hold  it  in  place. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  parts  fit  together  accurately  for  a  lining 
wrongly  put  in  may  throw  a  garment  out  of  shape. 

The  men  who  do  this  work  are  tailors  who  know  the  garment  they 
are  making,  understand  sewing,  and  know  fabrics. 

Armhole  basting,  frequently  called  "hitching,"  consists  in  basting 
around  the  arm's  eye  to  catch  together  the  outer  coat,  the  padding, 
and  the  lining.  To  do  this  work,  the  b aster  lays  the  coat  over  her 
left  hand  with  the  right  side  of  the  coat  out,  and  with  the  hand  works 
the  cloth  over  the  canvas  toward  the  arm's  eye  and  bastes  the  edges 
together.  The  lining  is  left  slightly  loose,  but  the  outside  of  the  coat 
is  stretched  toward  the  arm's  eye  so  that  there  will  be  no  surplus 
material  to  fall  in  wrinkles  when  the  coat  is  worn. 

Finishing  is  fine  hand  sewing,  such  as  felling  linings  and  collars, 
and  tacking  collars,  for  which  the  hemstitch,  slip-stitch  and  blind- 
stitch  are  used.  The  lining  at  the  bottom  of  the  sleeves  around  the 
arm's  eye  and  at  the  shoulders  is  felled  with  fine,  closely  set  stitches. 
The  lining  at  the  bottom  of  the  coat  is  slip-stitched  to  the  hem.  The 
under-collar  is  felled  at  the  neck  line  by  hand  and  the  top  collar  is 
felled  around  the  edges  with  stitches  so  small  and  closely  set  that  they 
can  not  be  seen. 

Collar  tacking  is  also  done  by  hand.  The  worker  puts  together 
two  turned  edges  of  the  collar  and  the  lapel  of  the  coat  so  that  they 
fit  together  in  perfect  line  and  runs  her  needle  back  and  forth  so  as  to 
catch  the  two  edges  together  closely  and  firmly  with  stitches  set  so 
closely  together  and  so  evenly  that  the  seam  seems  to  have  been  sewed 
and  turned.  This  is  the  most  difficult  of  all  the  hand  processes  done 
on  the  garment. 

With  the  exception  of  collar  tacking  which  requires  the  highest 
degree  of  skill,  requirements  for  hand-sewing  are  practically  the  same 
for  all  processes.  The  work  is  divided  into  operations  for  convenience, 
speed,  and  a  maximum  of  work  from  the  most  highly  skilled  workers. 

Good  eyesight,  good  health,  endurance,  and  steady  nerves  are  the 
necessary  physical  requirements.  Persons  having  a  tendency  toward 
narrow  chest,  anaemia,  curvature  of  the  spine,  or  nervousness  should 
not  be  encouraged  to  do  hand-sewing  of  this  kind. 

Buttonholes  (hand-made)  on  coats  and  vests.  The  buttonhole 
is  cut  by  the  tailor  or  foreman  who  is  responsible  for  the  placing  of  the 
buttonholes,  which,  in  addition  to  their  usefulness,  form  part  of  the 
design  of  the  garment.  He  cuts  the  buttonhole  to  exact  size  by  means 
of  a  buttonhole  punch.  The  worker  overcasts  the  buttonhole  if  nec- 
essary and  works  it  by  hand,  using  the  regular  buttonhole  stitch  which 
on  tailored  clothes  is  made  over  a  guimpe  thread  to  strengthen  the  edge. 
She  begins  at  the  end  farthest  from  the  edge  of  the  garment,  sets  the 
stitches  at  equal  depth,  and  far  enough  apart  for  the  pearls  to  fall 
close  together  at  the  edge  of  the  buttonhole.  This  is  skilled  handwork 
of  the  highest  order. 

Good  eyesight,  good  judgment,  accuracy  in  eye-measurements, 
and  skill  are  the  necessary  requirements  for  this  work. 

78 


Button-sewing.  Buttons  are  sewed  on  tailored  coats  and  vests 
by  hand,  as  the  stitches  should  not  be  seen  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
garment.  The  position  of  buttons  is  determined  by  the  buttonholes. 
Buttons  on  coats  and  vests  are  sewed  on  with  a  shank  of  thread.  The 
worker  places  the  button,  puts  in  the  stitches  which  hold  it  to  the  gar- 
ment, catching  only  the  outer  part  and  interlining,  and  holds  the  but- 
ton away  from  the  garment  so  as  to  allow  a  space  between.  When 
enough  stitches  have  been  inserted,  the  thread  from  the  needle  is  wrap- 
ped around  the  stitches  so  as  to  form  a  shank.  Tailors  report  that 
this  process,  though  seemingly  simple,  is  one  with  which  there  is  the 
most  difficulty.  Buttons  must  be  spaced  accurately  and  placed  in 
straight  lines.  The  slightest  deviation  either  way  spoils  the  appear- 
ance of  the  garment. 

Good  judgment,  good  eyesight,  accuracy,  and  skill  in  hand-sewing 
are  necessary  for  this  work. 

The  piped  buttonhole  is  made  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  piped 
pocket.  The  worker  sews  the  cloth  to  the  line  for  the  buttonhole  on 
the  right  side  of  the  garment,  cuts  the  buttonhole  of  exact  length, 
draws  the  piping  through  to  the  wrong  side  of  the  garment  and  stitches 
the  piping  in  the  seam  line,  so  that  the  stitching,  which  furnishes  and 
reinforces  the  buttonhole,  is  not  visible,  and  tacks  the  ends. 

These  buttonholes,  which  are  used  on  conductor's  and  postman's 
uniforms  and  cloaks  and  suits,  require  much  the  same  workmanship 
as  the  pockets.  It  is  probably  a  little  more  exacting,  as  starting 
and  stopping  the  machine  for  short  lengths  of  sewing  is  more  difficult 
for  many  workers  than  for  the  longer  work. 

Binding  is  a  specialized  process  which  is  used  extensively  in  the 
tailoring  industries,  and  for  women's  wear.  It  consists  of  stitching  a 
bias  binding  to  the  edge  of  parts  of  the  garment  which  are  exposed 
when  the  garment  is  completed.  The  binding  serves  as  a  finish  to  the 
edge,  and  prevents  it  from  fraying  or  pulling  out. 

For  this  process,  the  worker  places  the  edge  of  the  cloth  under  the 
presser  foot  as  for  a  plain  seam,  and  inserts  the  bias  strip  of  cloth  in 
the  binding  attachment,  which  folds  it  over  the  edge  of  the  cloth  during 
the  stitching  process.  This  work  is  done  on  a  single  needle  machine, 
and  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  constructive  process,  though  the 
manipualtion  of  the  fabric  during  the  binding  process  may,  if  care  is  not 
exercised,  change  the  shape  of  the  edge  which  is  being  bound  and  so 
affect  the  garment.  Bias  or  shaped  edges,  which  are  easily  misshapen, 
require  special  care. 

Requirements  for  this  work  are  practically  the  same  as  for  plain 
seaming. 

Bullion  work  is  a  specialized  form  of  hand  embroidery  used  on  uni- 
forms and  regalia.  It  consists  of  sewing  to  the  garment  in  the  form  of 
letters,  insignia  or  other  designs,  gold  or  silver  colored  bullion. 

The  emblems  are  made  in  the  garment  or  on  a  separate  piece  and 
sewed  on  the  garment.  For  the  work,  the  piece  to  be  decorated  is 
placed  in  an  embroidery  frame  which  stands  in  front  of  the  worker 
like  a  table,  the  design  is  carefully  laid  out,  and  the  bullion  cut  in  suita- 
ble lengths  for  the  design.  The  bullion  which  is  made  like  a  tiny 
spiral  spring  is  lifted  on  the  point  of  the  needle,  slipped  back  on  the 
thread  and  sewed  to  the  fabric.  Row  after  row  is  sewed  to  the  cloth 

79 


in  much  the  same  way  that  embroidery  stitches  are  placed.  The 
worker  gauges  the  length  of  the  bullion  to  be  used,  the  slope,  and  the 
spacing  of  the  stitches. 

This  work  requires  close  attention;  hence,  good  eyesight  is  impor- 
tant. The  ability  to  gauge  measurements  by  eye  is  also  important. 

Braiding  is  also  used  extensively  on  uniforms.  Plain  single-needle 
stitching  and  two-needle  stitching  are  used,  and,  to  a  limited  extent, 
the  special  braiding  machine.  Designs  are  made  free-hand,  and,  when 
complicated,  considerable  skill  is  required  to  execute  them. 

This  work,  which  is  limited  to  relatively  few,  requires  special  train- 
ing, and  experience  in  the  handling  of  the  work,  operating  the  machine, 
and  executing  the  design.  Training  for  it  is  given  almost  exclusively 
in  the  factory. 

Wages  for  the  majority  of  workers  in  the  clothing  and  tailor- 
to-the-trade  industries  are  paid  by  piece  rates  per  single  or  dozen 
operations.  Thus  wages  vary  for  the  different  operations  and  for  the 
various  grades  of  work.  The  amount  of  work  available  day  after  day 
also  affects  wages.  Machine-sewing  is  done  almost  exclusively  as 
piece  work,  but  a  number  of  all-round  skilled  workers  are  employed 
steadily  who  are  paid  a  weekly  wage.  The  contract  shops  also  use 
the  piece-work  system  to  some  extent,  but  a  number  of  shops  use  the 
week-rate  and  deduct  at  time  rates  for  absence  or  lay-offs. 

Educational  requirements  for  machine  workers  are  much  the  saem 
for  all  operations.  An  elementary  school  education  or  the  equivalent 
is  coming  to  be  considered  a  minimum  requirement.  This  is  partly 
due  to  the  compulsory  school  law  and  the  elimination  of  children  under 
sixteen  from  factory  employments,  but  it  is  also  due  to  a  growing  belief 
that  general  intelligence  contributes  to  working  efficiency.  Few  workers 
in  the  garment  industries  keep  account  of  their  work  or  their  earnings. 
It  is  not  required,  so  they  do  not  do  it.  This  lack  of  information  on 
their  parts  amounts  to  a  handicap. 

Technical  knowledge  of  garment-making  is  required  for  the  majority 
of  the  machine  processes,  and  practical  knowledge  of  fabric  is  indis- 
pensible. 

Health  requirements  are  in  a  sense  more  important  than  education 
and  skill  since  without  health  the  most  skilled  workers  may  not  succeed. 
Physical  vigor,  a  strong  straight  back,  good  eyesight,  steady  nerves, 
an  accurate  sense  of  measurements  and  color,  and  correct  habits  of 
sitting  and  standing  are  most  essential.  The  ability  to  work  six  days 
each  week  under  normal  conditions  requires  regular  habits  of  sleep, 
meals,  and  recreation. 

Vest  Processes. 

The  vest  is  less  complicated  than  a  coat  and  requires  less  tailoring 
and  shaping.  Unlike  the  coat,  the  vest  is  frequently  made  through- 
out by  one  person,  though,  in  the  large  factories,  and,  to  some  extent 
in  the  smaller  shops,  the  work  is  sectionized.  The  pockets  are  given 
to  one  operator;  the  linings,  to  another;  and  the  front  facing  and  fin- 
ishing to  another.  The  processes  are  pocket  making,  front  making, 
lining  and  back  making,  buttonhole  making,  and  sewing  on  buttons. 

80 


Vest  pockets,  both  in  the  lining  and  the  outer  garment,  are  made 
like  those  described  under  the  coat.  Practically  all  vest  pockets  are 
welt  pockets  as  described  on  page  76  of  this  report. 

The  front:  After  the  pockets  have  been  made  the  operator  stays 
the  front  edge  of  the  vest  with  an  edge  tape  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
edge  of  the  coat  is  stayed.  The  canvas  interlining  is  then  put  in, 
and  the  facing  piece  sewed  on  and  turned  in,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  edge  of  the  coat.  After  the  edge  has  been  pressed,  it  is  stitched 
for  finish  and  strength. 

The  lining  of  the  vest  is  macle  and  sewed  to  the  vest  at  the  under 
arm  seams  and  shoulders.  The  seams  are  short  and  there  is  less  shap- 
ing of  the  garment  at  the  under  arm  seams  than  there  is  on  a  coat; 
hence  the  work  is  proportionally  simple.  Hand-finishing  on  vests 
consists  of  hemming  down  the  lining  at  the  shoulders  and  under-arm 
seams,  and  fronts. 

Pants  Processes.    \JV*^ 

From  the  standpoint  of  tailoring  and  fine  workmanship,  the  pants 
are  the  simplest  of  the  three  garments  which  make  up  the  suit.  They 
are  not  lined  and  stiffening  and  padding  are  not  used,  which  greatly 
simplifies  the  work.  The  processes  in  pants  making  are  as  follows: 

Pocket-making,  making  of  flies,  putting  on  the  bands,  seaming, 
serging,  tacking  belt-straps,  buttonholes,  button-sewing,  and  hemming; 
all  of  these  are  machine  processes,  except  hemming. 

Pants  pockets  are  made  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  pockets  in 
the  coat.  The  piped  pocket  is  the  one  most  generally  used.  The 
hip-pocket  may  be  the  piped  or  flap  pocket.  The  front  pockets,  when 
made  along  the  side  seam  of  the  trousers,  are  faced  with  cloth  like 
the  garment.  When  cut  diagonally  across  the  front  piece  of  the 
trousers,  they  are  made  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  piped  pocket. 
The  coin  and  watch  pockets  are  set  in  with  the  belt.  There  is  no 
material  difference  in  the  skill  required  to  make  these  pockets  and 
the  pockets  of  the  coat  and  vest,  though  coat  pockets  are  considered 
most  important. 

The  fly,  or  the  placket  of  the  trousers,  is  faced  and  a  button-hole 
piece  stitched  on  the  one  side,  and  an  extension  piece  for  the  buttons 
is  stitched  on  the  other  side  of  the  opening.  The  operator  who  makes 
the  fly  or  placket  makes  and  faces  the  buttonhole  side,  sets  in  the  but- 
tonhole strip,  and  sets  on  the  button  extension.  When  this  is  completed 
the  band  across  the  top  is  sewed  on,  the  pocket  inserted,  and  a  second 
row  of  stitching  is  put  in  for  finish  and  durability. 

This  work  requires  considerable  skill,  for  the  operator  inserts  the 
pocket  with  the  belt  and  is  obliged  to  keep  the  garment  in  shape  while 
the  work  is  being  done. 

The  seams  of  the  trousers  are  uncovered  and  the  edges  are  serged 
as  described  under  special  machine  processes.  When  the  parts  have 
been  serged,  the  worker  who  is  called  the  seamer,  sews  up  the  seams 
in  the  trousers.  This  work  is  frequently  done  by  the  person  who  makes 
and  puts  on  the  flies.  Seaming  on  trousers  requires  much  less  skill 
than  seaming  on  coats,  for  there  is  practically  no  manipulation  of  the 
cloth  required  that  will  affect  the  shape  of  the  trousers. 

81 


Serging.  Serging  is  a  special  process  which  covers  the  edge  of  the 
goods  with  a  loose  overcasting  stitching.  A  gauge  is  used  on  the 
machine  to  guide  the  cloth  and  regulate  the  depth  of  the  serging  stitch. 
This  process  is  used  on  the  raw  edges  of  the  trousers  to  give  finish  to 
the  seams  and  prevent  the  goods  from  fraying.  It  is  a  mechanical 
process  which  may  be  learned  in  a  very  short  time  at  the  machine. 
The  amount  of  skill  required  varies  with  the  cloth.  Cloth  that  frays 
is  the  most  difficult  to  handle. 

Tacking.  Tacking  by  machine  is  a  process  somewhat  like  the  button- 
holing which  is  used  to  stay  parts  whe*re  there  may  be  strain.  For  this 
process,  the  worker  places  the  garment  under  the  presser  foot,  starts 
the  machine  with  the  lever.  The  length  of  the  bar  and  the  number 
of  stitches  are  placed  automatically  by  the  machine  which  stops  when 
the  operation  is  completed.  This  tacking  is  used  for  fastening  the 
ends  of  pockets,  belt  straps,  and  any  other  parts  of  coats,  vests,  and 
trousers  that  need  special  strengthening.  The  operator  must  know 
how  to  lay  the  work  so  that  the  bar  will  fall  in  the  right  position, 
and  how  to  release  the  work  when  the  operation  is  completed ;  other- 
wise it  is  a  mechanical  process. 

Pressing. 

Pressing  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  manufacture  of  tailored 
garments.  The  work  is  done  almost  exclusively  by  men  who  are 
designated  as  part-pressers,  under-pressers.  and  top  or  off-pressers, 
according  to  the  type  of  pressing  they  do.  The  work  is  done  by  means 
of  a  hand  iron  called  the  tailor's  goose,  and  the  pressing  machine 
which  operates  by  hydraulic  pressure.  The  iron  is  frequently  swung 
on  a  crane,  which  eliminates  lifting,  so  constructed  as  to  add  extra 
pressure  by  use  of  a  foot  lever.  The  pressing  machine  is  also  operated 
by  means  of  a  foot  lever.  The  most  modern  pressing  appliances 
eliminate  much  of  the  lifting  and  the  use  of  the  weight  of  the  body 
in  using  the  hand  iron  or  machine,  but  in  the  majority  of  the  factories 
additional  pressure  is  produced  by  throwing  the  weight  of  the  body 
on  the  foot  lever  or  the  iron  during  the  presssing  process. 

No  system  of  apprenticeship  exists  in  pressing,  but  the  jobs  are 
graded  and  a  scale  of  wages  used  corresponding  to  the  skill  necessary 
for  the  work,  and  workers  must  qualify  for  the  work  in  the  order  men- 
tioned. Workers  begin  as  part  pressers  usually  without  preparation, 
and  press  flat  pieces  as  belts,  cuffs,  and  pocketflaps.  Later,  as  he 
qualifies  as  part  presser,  he  may  press  undercollars  and  from  this  he 
progresses  to  such  work  as  seam  pressing,  pocket  pressing,  and  collar 
shaping.  Part  pressing  and  under-pressing  are  done  on  the  wrong  side 
of  the  garment,  and  so  carry  with  them  less  responsibility  than 
off  pressing  which  is  done  on  the  right  side  of  the  garment  after  it  is 
completed. 

Part  pressing  consists  in  pressing  the  small  parts  that  are  made 
separately  and  put  on  the  garment  as  tabs,  pocket-flaps,  patch-pockets, 
and  collars,  and  is  usually  done  with  a  lighter  iron  than  is  used  on  the 
garment.  This  is  the  simplest  sort  of  pressing,  and  is  done  by  young 
men  who  wish  to  become  pressers. 

Under  pressing  is  pressing  the  coat  after  it  has  been  put  together 
ready  for  the  sleeves  to  be  set.  This  work  consists  in  pressing  all  the 

82 


seams,  the  pockets,  and  the  facing,  and  shaping  the  garment  with  the 
iron  when  shaping  is  necessary  or  desired.  Very  little  of  the  under- 
pressing  is  flat  work;  hence,  the  shape  of  the  garment  depends  upon 
the  presser,  his  skill  in  handling  the  iron,  his  knowledge  of  the  garment, 
and  judgment  in  shaping  it.  A  hand  iron  and  a  shaped  cushion  or 
board  are  used  for  this  work.  On  the  higher  grade  of  product  the 
parts  of  the  garment  and  the  garment  go  to  the  under  presser  a  num- 
ber of  times  during  the  process  of  making. 

Off  pressing  is  pressing  the  garment  after  it  is  finished,  and  out  of 
the  sewer's  hands.  It  consists  in  giving  the  finishing  touches  with  the 
iron  to  every  part  of  the  coat.  Special  attention  is  given  the  collar, 
to  the  lapels,  and  to  the  fronts  of  the  coat,  which  are  pressed  and  shaped 
to  give  the  desired  effect.  In  high-grade  products,  this  off  pressing 
can  be  trusted  only  to  the  most  skilled  and  reponsible  workers  who  can 
be  relied  upon  to  put  the  finishing  touches  on  the  garment.  In  the 
making  of  cheap  clothing,  where  less  attention  is  given  to  the  tailoring 
and  the  under  pressing,  off  pressing  is  given  more  attention  than  under 
pressing,  as  it  is  relied  upon  to  give  the  shape  to  the  garment  which  is 
ordinarily  done  by  the  under  pressing.  The  pressing  machine,  which 
presses  a  large  part  of  the  garment  at  once,  is  used  for  coat  fronts, 
vest,  and  trousers. 

Pressers  must  be  able  to  gauge  the  heat  of  the  iron,  for  over- 
heating "cooks"  the  fabric  and  limits  the  wearing  qualities.  They 
must  know  fabrics  and  their  shrinking  qualities  so  as  to  shrink  them 
where  necessary  or  avoid  shrinking,  and  the  amount  of  steam  to  be 
used.  Under  pressers  and  off  pressers  must  know  how  the  finished 
garment  should  look,  both  as  to  shape  and  finish,  and  do  the  pressing 
so  as  to  preserve  the  essential  features  of  a  well-tailored  garment. 

The  Cloak,  Suit  and  Skirt  Industry. 

The  cloak,  suit,  and  skirt  industry  is  also  a  tailoring  industry, 
though  the  advent  of  soft-draped  garments  has  brought  into  the  work 
some  elements  of  dressmaking.  Less  tailoring — by  which  the  tailor 
means  the  shaping  of  the  garment  by  the  way  the  cloth  is  worked  in 
or  shaped  in  the  sewing  processes — is  done  on  women's  garments  than 
upon  men's,  and  tailoring  has  been  noticeably  less  since  the  soft  coats 
have  been  in  vogue. 

Style  is  a  most  important  factor  in  the  manufacture  of  women's 
clothing.  The  prevailing  styles  for  a  season  are  prepared  for  the 
wholesale  market  six  to  ten  months  before  they  appear  in  the  retail 
market.  These  are  carefully  studied  by  the  designers  for  the  retail 
market  and  each  factory  makes  sample  garments  suited  to  the  trade 
to  which  it  caters.  But  this  does  not  wholly  satisfy  the  trade.  Variety 
is  demanded  and  many  manufacturers  cater  to  this  demand  so  as  to 
encourage  constant  buying.  Thus  this  industry  is  to  a  greater  extent 
than  the  men's  clothing  industry  obliged  to  add  new  models  constantly. 

Manufacturers  say  that  the  greatest  need  in  this  industry  at  the 
present  time  is  for  designers  who  can  create,  not  merely  copy,  fashions 
for  American  women.  Few  designers  in  the  industry  at  the  present 
time  have  creative  ability,  but  copy  designs  which  they  gather  at  the 
advance  fashion  shows  and  from  fashion  magazines.  Considerable 
interest  has  been  shown  among  Cincinnati  manufacturers  engaged 

83 


in  this  industry  in  urging  a  definite  movement  among  manufacturers 
to  establish  an  American  school  of  fashion,  which  shall  influence  style 
and  train  men  and  women  for  creative  work  in  the  designing  of  gar- 
ments. 

This  subject  was  discussed  at  the  convention  of  Cloak,  Suit,  and 
Skirt  Manufacturers'  Association  in  Cincinnati,  in  April,  1915. 

Coats  and  skirts  are  made  in  separate  shops,  each  of  which  has  its 
corps  of  workers,  the  majority  of  whom  must  be  skilled  coat  workers 
or  skirt  workers.  Work  is  sectionized  as  in  other  lines  of  manufacture 
and  subdivisions  vary  among  factories  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  the 
factories  which  make  men's  clothing. 

Designing  garments  requires  a  knowledge  of  (1)  the  structure  of 
a  garment,  for  the  position  of  seams  is  an  important  element  in  design; 
(2)  the  decorations  to  be  used,  for  stitqhing,  braids,  bands,  and  fancy 
trimmings  help  to  make  design;  (3)  the  textures  of  fabrics,  for  effects 
are  soft  and  clinging,  or  straight  and  severe  according  to  the  texture 
of  the  fabric  used;  and  (4)  colors  and  color  harmony  and  the  effect 
of  texture  on  color. 

Draping  is  an  important  feature  in  the  manufacture  of  women's 
clothing.  Each  shop  has  an  expert  worker  known  as  a  draper,  who 
puts  each  garment  on  a  dress  form  several  times  during  the  process  of 
making,  to  see  that  the  parts  are  put  together  properly  and  that  the 
garment  hangs  well.  She  detects  such  things  as  variations  in  the 
alignment  of  seams  and  the  causes  for  them,  unequal  stretching  or 
holding  in  of  the  fabric  in  sewing,  which  affects  the  shape  of  the  garment. 
She  is  also  responsible  for  the  accuracy  of  measurements  and  duplication 
of  designs. 

The  draper  is  usually  a  woman  who  has  worked  in  the  trade  for  some 
time  and  demonstrated  some  initiative,  good  judgment,  and  the 
ability  to  make  the  garment  she  drapes.  The  draper  frequently  has 
some  talent  for  designing,  for  the  things  upon  which  she  passes  judg- 
ment are  a  part  of  the  design  of  the  garment,  and,  if  she  is  bright, 
ambitious,  and  observant,  there  is  opportunity  to  make  constructive 
suggestions — ability  which  very  materially  increases  interest  in  the 
work  and  the  earning  capacity  of  the  individual. 

The  model  is  an  unique  employe  of  the  cloak,  suit,  and  skirt  in- 
dustry. She  is  a  person  whose  figure  corresponds  in  measurements 
and  proportions  to  one  of  the  stock  or  model  sizes  used  for  making  ready- 
to-wear  coats  and  suits.  One  or  more  persons  are  employed  to  act 
as  models  for  each  size  the  factory  produces.  These  are  commonly 
sizes  36,  38,  and  40.  The  models  are  used  for  two  types  of  work: 
they  try  on  the  finished  or  nearly  finished  suits  which  the  draper 
examines;  they  also  serve  as  manikins  to  display  the  suits  at  ex- 
hibits of  garments  and  to  customers  who  wish  to  purchase  clothing. 

The  requirements  for  this  work  are  wholly  physical  and  personal. 
A  perfectly  proportioned  figure,  good  style,  and  good  taste  are  the 
essential  features.  The  model  is  a  saleswoman  in  a  sense,  for  her 
skill  and  tact  in  showing  the  garments  are  important  factors  in  making 
the  sale. 

This  work  has  become  so  essential  to  the  sale  of  women's  wear 
that  manufacturers  have  been  trying  to  make  the  position  desirable 

84 


from  a  social  and  business  standpoint  as  well  as  from  the  standpoint 
of  wages,  which  are  high  as  compared  with  other  positions  in  the 
industry.  Women  working  in  this  capacity  are  in  a  position  to  study 
costume  design  and  salesmanship,  either  one  of  which  would  require 
study  and  initiative  and  thus  tend  to  vitalize  the  work.  As  it  is,  it 
requires  a  healthy,  normal,  attractive  person,  but  offers  little  in  the 
content  of  the  work  itself  for  personal  development. 

The  sewing  operations  used  in  making  women's  garments  are 
done  in  the  same  way  as  in  making  men's  coats.  Fabrics  of  lighter 
weight  and  looser  texture  than  are  used  for  men's  clothing  are  fre- 
quently used  and  the  handling  of  the  work  in  the  sewing  processes 
is  somewhat  different.  Coats  are  made  by  one  group  of  workers  and 
skirts  by  another;  hence,  there  are  coat  shops  and  skirt  shops.  In 
each  of  these  shops  there  are  three  groups  of  workers :  machine  sewers, 
hand  sewers,  and  pressers.  Cutting  is  usually  done  in  one  depart- 
ment as  described  on  page  67  of  this  report. 

Coat-Making. 

The  machine  processes  in  coat  making  are  seaming,  pocket-making, 
trimming,  sleeve-making,  lining  making,  and  edge-stitching.  With 
the  exception  of  trimming,  these  processes  are  the  same  as  for  men's 
clothing,  though,  as  has  already  been  noted,  pockets  are  less  used 
and  there  are  more  numerous  variations  in  the  position  of  seams  and 
the  ways  they  are  made.  Trimming  is  sewing  on  of  tabs,  yokes, 
and  trimmings  of  various  sorts,  which  is  done  before  the  garment  is 
put  together  and  is  for  the  most  part  what  is  called  flat  work  which 
requires  no  shaping,  stretching  or  holding  in  of  the  cloth.  For  an 
analysis  of  coat  processes,  enumerated  at  the  beginning,  or  in  this  para- 
graph, see  pages  73  to  80,  inclusive,  under  men's-  clothing. 

The  hand  processes  on  coats  are  chiefly  fine  hand  finishing,  as  bast- 
ing is  not  used  for  making  women's  coats  as  extensively  as  for  men's 
coats.  The  operations  are  lining,  felling,  button-sewing,  buttonhole 
making,  sewing  on  snappers  or  hooks  and  eyes,  tacking  ends  and 
tacking  on  trimmings.  The  sewing  on  of  fur  is  also  used  in  this 
industry.  These  processes  are  described  under  the  men's  clothing 
industry,  and  are  not  sufficiently  unlike  those  in  the  manufacture  of 
women's  clothing  to  warrant  separate  discussion. 

Skirt  making.  Machine  processes  in  skirt  making  are  divided  into 
trimming,  seaming,  hemming,  placket  making,  binding,  and  draping. 
Trimming  is  the  same  as  flat  work  described  under  coat  making. 

Skirt  seaming  differs  very  materially  from  waist  seaming.  Seams 
are  much  longer,  and  a  much  larger  bulk  of  work  is  to  be  handled. 
Seams  must  be  straight,  and  of  equal  depth  throughout  the  entire 
length  of  the  skirt  so  that  when  the  garment  is  pressed  the  seam  will 
fall  in  the  line  desired.  For  this  work,  the  operator  must  be  able  to 
swing  the  work  through  the  machine  without  stopping  the  power  or 
shifting  the  work.  Although  no  data  are  available  upon  this  point, 
employers  are  of  the  opinion  that  this  operation  requires  a  somewhat 
different  habit  of  work  than  waist- seaming.  The  fact  that  waist 
makers  rarely  succeed  as  skirt  makers,  without  considerable  practice 
and  experience,  or  at  other  work  which  involves  the  long  seam,  gives 
some  evidence  that  this  is  true. 

85 


Plackets.  The  placket  used  almost  exclusively  on  ready-to-wear 
garments  is  the  bound  placket — a  straight  strip  sewed  to  the  two 
edges  of  the  opening  and  hemmed  down  by  machine.  This  is  a  simple 
operation  which  demands  very  little  knowledge  of  the  garment,  though 
it  does  require  ability  to  handle  fabrics  skillfully. 

Binding  is  described  on  page  79  of  this  report,  and  draping  on  page 
84.  For  a  description  of  the  hemming  processes,  see  below. 

Hand  sewing  processes  on  skirts  are  such  finishing  as  sewing  on 
snappers,  hooks  and  eyes;  tacking  and  hemming. 

Snappers,  hooks  and  eyes,  and  buttons  are  sewed  on  by  hand. 
Tacking  is  fastening  and  putting  in  a  few  stitches  at  places  where 
extra  strength  is  necessary,  and  fastening  draperies. 

Hemming.  The  hems  on  tailor-made  skirts  are  usually  basted  in 
and  pressed  only  with  the  light  iron.  The  hem  is  not  measured  for 
uniformity  except  by  the  eye  as  the  worker  sews  in  the  basting  stitches. 
Fine  hand  hemming  is  used  to  some  extent  on  the  plackets  and  on  the 
waist  bands  of  skirts. 

Finishing  tailored  skirts  does  not  require  such  fine  hand  sewing  as 
coats  or  dresses  of  silk,  chiffon,  or  net. 

Machine  Operators  in  the  cloak,  suit,  and  skirt  industry  are  for 
the  most  part  women,  experienced  in  tailoring  work.  A  few  workers, 
experienced  in  dressmaking,  are  employed.  Many  of  them  have  had 
some  preliminary  training  in  sewing  at  home,  or  in  a  tailor's  shop 
in  the  home  neighborhood.  Others  have  learned  in  the  factory  under 
the  direction  of  a  forewoman  or  foreman.  A  number  of  persons  who 
have  worked  as  assistants  in  dressmakers'  establishments  drift  into 
the  factories  or  find  their  way  into  them  in  answer  to  advertisements 
which  ask  for  workers  who  have  had  experience  in  dressmaking. 

Shirt  Making. 

Shirts.  From  the  standpoint  of  numbers  of  workers  employed, 
the  shirt  industry  ranks  third  among  the  garment  industries  of  Cin- 
cinnati. The  product  of  this  industry  is  confined  wholly  to  the  ready- 
to-wear  negligee  shirts,  dress  shirts,  and  working  shirts.  Custom  shirts 
are  made  also,  but  the  work  is  done  in  small  shops  which  are  not  rated 
as  factories. 

Nearly  1200  persons,  according  to  the  report  of  the  State  Indus- 
trial Commission  of  Ohio,  were  employed  in  the  industry  in  1914; 
84  of  these  were  men  and  1109,  women.  These  figures  represent  the 
number  of  employees  for  the  week  of  greatest  employment,  and  in- 
clude, therefore,  those  who  do  not  have  constant  employment. 

Shirt  making  is  almost  exclusively  machine  work,  though  in  cus- 
tom shops  such  hand  work  as  hand-embroidered  initials,  eyelets,  and 
hand-made  buttonholes  are  used.  This  work  is  limited,  however, 
and  workers  employed  for  it  are  very  few  in  number.  The  majority 
of  the  employees  are  engaged  as  cutters  and  machine-operators.  The 
cutting  is  done  by  men  and  the  sewing  almost  exclusively  by  women. 

The  grades  of  product  vary  considerably.  Working  shirts  are 
made  of  coarse  gingham,  chambray,  and  shirtings.  Negligees  are 
made  of  madras,  shirtings,  cotton,  silk,  and  mercerized  materials, 
all  of  which  the  shirt  operator  is  called  upon  to  handle  as  the  market 
demands.  Dress-shirts  are  made  of  fine  lingerie  materials  that  require 
a  high  grade  of  skill  and  ability  for  successful  work. 

86 


The  work  on  shirts  is  subdivided  according  to  processes,  as  in  the 
other  branches  of  the  garment  industries.  The  neck  bands,  sleeves, 
cuffs,  collar,  and  body  of  the  shirts  are  made  simultaneously  by  three 
or  four  groups  of  workers,  and  the  parts,  when  finished,  are  assembled 
by  other  groups  of  workers  who  "set"  the  collars  and  sleeves  and  join 
the  underarm  and  sleeve  seams. 

Much  of  the  work  on  the  shirt  is  done  before  the  seams  of  the 
garment  are  joined,  so  that  the  work  may  lie  flat  on  the  machine. 
The  fronts  are  made,  the  pocket  stitched  in  place,  and  yoke  sewed  to 
to  the  back  before  the  shoulder  seam  is  joined.  Following  this  opera- 
tion is  the  setting  of  the  sleeve,  which  is  done  before  the  seam  of  the 
sleeve  and  the  body  of  the  shirt  is  joined,  in  one  continuous  seam. 

The  operations  in  the  making  of  a  shirt  are  making  neck-bands, 
cuffs,  and  collars;  making  sleeves;  making  bosoms  or  fronts;  hemming; 
yoking;  joining  shoulders;  putting  in  sleeves;  felling  sides  (underarm 
and  sleeve  seams);  putting  on  cuffs;  putting  on  collar  or  neck  bands; 
making  buttonholes;  sewing  on  buttons;  and  examining. 

The  constructive  and  the  finishing  processes  vary  less  in  the  shirt 
industry  than  in  the  clothing  industry.  Shirts  are  more  simply 
made,  and  the  shaping  of  the  garment  is  less  dependent  upon  the 
operator  than  coats,  waists,  or  dresses. 

Collar-making  demands  very  exact  work,  but  as  much  of  it  is  done 
by  means  of  a  specially  constructed  guide  which  regulates  the  depth 
of  the  seam  on  the  collar  having  the  rounded  corner,  as  well  as  the  one 
having  the  square  corner,  the  work  may  be  readily  learned  and,  after 
a  few  weeks'  practice,  becomes  somewhat  automatic  in  the  hands  of 
the  skillful  worker.  Cuffs  and  collar  bands  are  made  by  the  same 
method. 

In  some  factories  the  seams  of  the  collars  and  cuffs  are  pressed  to 
depth  ready  for  the  stitching  by  means  of  specially  constructed  machines 
which  turn  and  press  the  seam  by  an  operation  which  resembles 
the  automatic  die  used  for  cutting.  When  this  method  is  used,  the 
top,  under  part,  and  interlining  are  pressed  together  in  one  operation. 
When  made  by  this  method,  the  one  row  of  stitching  on  the  right  side 
of  the  collar  serves  to  hold  the  parts  together  and  to  finish  the  edge. 
When  the  seam  is  used,  two  rows  of  stitching  are  used: 

By  the  first  method  the  operator  takes  the  under  part  of  the  collar 
from  the  parts  which  have  been  pressed  together,  turns  it,  and  lays 
the  two  parts  back  to  back  with  the  seams  turned  in,  lays  it  under  the 
presser  foot  and  puts  in  one  row  of  stitches  the  required  distance 
from  the  edge.  When  square  corners  are  used  on  the  collar,  she  locks 
the  corners  so  that  they  will  be  caught  and  held  in  place  by  the  stitch- 
ing. By  the  second  method,  the  operator  places  the  parts  of  the  col- 
lar or  cuff  together  face  to  face,  sews  a  plain  seam,  turns  it,  folds  cor- 
ners, if  square  corners  are  used,  and  puts  in  a  row  of  stitching  on  the 
right  side  for  strength  and  finish. 

Setting  the  collar  into  the  collar  band  requires  greater  skill  and 
knowledge  of  the  collar  or  garment  than  making  the  collar.  The  col- 
lar is  set  into  the  band  at  uniform  depth  and  stitched  into  place  by  a 
single  row  of  stitching.  It  is  placed  in  position  in  the  band  and  held 
without  a  guide;  the  accuracy  of  the  work,  therefore,  depends  largely 

87 


upon  the  skill  of  the  worker.  Since  slight  irregularities  in  this  opera- 
tion destroy  the  shape  of  the  collar,  it  is  important  that  this  work 
be  done  carefully. 

Sleeve  making.  Shirt  sleeves  are  made  in  one  piece  or  in  two 
pieces.  When  two  pieces  are  used,  the  parts  are  joined  by  a  plain, 
flat  felled  seam  which  is  usually  made  on  the  two-needle  machine. 
The  making  of  the  placket  is  the  principal  part  of  sleeve  making. 
The  under  edge  of  the  placket  is  hemmed,  and  on  the  upper  edge  a 
shaped  placket  piece  is  stitched.  This  placket  piece  is  sometimes 
put  on  by  means  of  a  two-needle  banding  machine  and  the  point  at 
the  top  of  the  placket  turned  and  finished  by  another  worker.  The 
common  method  is  to  sew  the  placket  strip  to  the  sleeve,  fold  the  piece 
into  position,  and  stitch  it  flat,  and  stay  the  top  with  a  row  of  stitching. 
The  placket  is  made  before  the  sleeve  is  joined,  so  the  work  is  flat 
under  the  presser  foot. 

This  work,  though  frequently  given  to  beginners,  is  rather  difficult- 
It  requires  close  attention  to  the  processes,  accuracy  in  measurements, 
which  are  made  without  a  guide  or  tape  measure,  and  ability  to  stop  the 
machine  on  the  stitch  in  finishing  the  top,  for  stitches  running  beyond 
the  edge  make  imperfect  work. 

Making  fronts  and  bosoms.  This  work  varies  according  to  the 
style  of  the  garment.  The  fronts  of  working  shirts  are  finished  with 
a  facing  and  a  pleat.  Dress  shirts  may  have  tucked  or  pleated  bosoms, 
which  are  set  into  the  front  of  the  shirt.  Negligee  shirts  may  have  the 
plain  pleat  and  facing  or  a  fancy  set-in  bosom.  The  plain  front  is 
made  by  putting  an  extension  facing  on  one  side  of  the  front  opening 
for  the  buttons,  and  sewing  on  a  strip  to  resemble  a  box  pleat  in  which 
the  buttonholes  are  made. 

The  button  strip  is  sewed  on  with  a  plain  seam,  turned  and  stitched 
on  the  right  side.  The  pleat  strip  is  sewed  on  with  a  plain  seam,  turned 
over  to  the  right  side,  stitched  to  the  shirt  to  resemble  a  pleat  and  the 
bottom  stayed  on  much  the  same  way  as  the  placket  of  the  sleeve. 

On  the  cheaper  product,  this  strip  is  sometimes  sewed  on  by  the 
two-needle  banding  machine.  When  this  method  is  used,  a  second 
operator  finishes  the  bottom  and  stays  the  bottoms  of  the  front. 

When  bosoms  are  made  separately,  as  the  tucked  bosom  or  the 
set-in  silk  bosom,  the  front  maker  may  set  the  bosom  or  it  may  be 
done  by  another  operator.  The  bosom  is  sewed  to  the  front  on  a  two- 
needle  flat-bed  machine,  and  the  bottom  is  finished  with  a  narrow 
facing  or  strip  which  covers  the  seam. 

Hemming.  The  bottom  of  the  shirt  is  hemmed  through  a  presser 
foot  hemmer,  and  the  gussets  set  in  during  the  hemming  process. 
As  the  bottom  of  the  shirt  is  shaped,  this  process  requires  consid- 
erable skill. 

The  operator  inserts  the  edge  of  the  garment  in  the  hemmer,  and 
manipulates  the  garment  during  the  hemming  process,  so  as  to  keep 
the  hem  uniform.  As  the  hem  is  being  made  the  operator  folds  the 
gusset  and  inserts  it  in  the  hemmer,  so  that  it  will  be  stitched  in  place 
at  the  side  seams  of  the  shirt. 

This  operation  requires  a  rather  high  degree  of  manipulative  ability 
and  constant  attention  to  the  work.  No  method  has  been  devised 

88 


for  this  process  which  eliminates  the  worker's  responsibility  for  the 
success  of  the  work.  Too  much  cloth  fed  into  the  hemmer  clogs  the 
hem;  too  little  causes  it  to  fray  out. 

Yoke  Setting.  Yoke  setting  is  stitching  the  two  parts  of  the  yoke 
to  the  back  of  the  shirt.  The  operator  lays  one  part  of  the  yoke  under  the 
presser  foot,  lays  the  back  of  the  shirt  on  the  yoke,  and  lays  the  other 
part  of  the  yoke  on  top  of  the  back  with  the  edges  all  turned  in  the  same 
direction,  stitches  a  plain  seam  across,  joining  the  three  parts  together 
and  distributing  the  gathers  in  proper  position.  She  may  or  may  not 
turn  the  parts  of  the  yoke  into  position  after  the  seam  has  been  stitched, 
and  runs  an  extra  row  of  stitching  along  the  seam  near  the  edge 
for  finish  and  strength.  This  operation  is  sometimes  done  on  a  special 
machine  which  makes  and  scatters  the  gathers  automatically.  For 
this  work,  the  operator  needs  to  know  how  to  lay  the  parts  together, 
where  the  gathers  should  come,  the  amount  to  be  gathered  in,  and  how 
to  distribute  the  gathers.  She  must  also  know  how  to  handle  the  cloth 
and  the  machine  and  how  to  keep  the  parts  adjusted,  so  that  the  gar- 
ment is  kept  in  shape. 

Shoulder  joining.  Shoulder  joining  is  a  relatively  simple  process. 
It  consists  of  joining  the  fronts  of  the  shirt  to  the  back  with  a  flat-fell 
seam.  The  worker  inserts  the  front  between  the  two  parts  of  the  yoke 
at  the  shoulder,  matches  stripes  when  necessary,  and  stitches  the  parts 
together  on  a  two-needle  machine  which  turns  the  cloth  in  as  it  is  passed 
under  the  presser  foot  This  worker  should  how  to  hold  the  parts 
of  the  garment  together  as  they  pass  under  the  machine  so  as  to  make 
seams  of  uniform  depth  and  to  keep  the  edges  turned  in  so  that  they 
will  not  fray.  This  operation  requires  more  knowledge  of  the  garment 
but  less  manipulative  ability  than  hemming  or  sleeve  making;  hence 
it  is  not  entrusted  to  beginners  until  they  have  demonstrated  their 
ability  to  sew  and  handle  work  with  some  degree  of  success. 

Sleeve  setting.  Sleeve  setting  in  shirt  making,  as  in  every  branch 
of  the  garment  industries,  is  considered  an  important  and  difficult 
process  as  the  appearance  and  comfort  of  the  garment  depend  so  much 
upon  it.  In  shirt  making  the  work  is  done  on  a  flat-bed  two-needle 
machine  which  turns  in  the  edges  of  the  cloth  and  puts  in  the  two  rows 
of  stitching  in  one  operation.  For  this  work,  the  operator  takes  the 
shirt  after  the  yoke  has  been  set  on  and  shoulder  seams  stitched,  lays 
it  over  the  top  edge  of  the  sleeve,  lapping  the  two  parts  just  enough 
for  the  seam  and  the  turn-in,  inserts  the  edges  in  the  attachments 
which  turn  in  the  edges  of  the  cloth,  and  guides  the  two  parts  under  the 
needle  during  the  stitching  process.  As  the  armhole  of  the  shirt  is 
nearly  straight  and  the  top  of  the  sleeve  is  somewhat  sloped,  the  two 
edges  do  not  feed  in  evenly,  hence,  the  process  requires  considerable 
manipulative  skill  and  judgment,  as  too  much  cloth  fed  in  pleats  and 
too  little  frays  out.  It  requires  also  a  little  higher  degree  of  intelli- 
gence than  such  operations  as  collar-making  and  shoulder-seaming, 
as  the  degree  of  skill  required  varies  with  the  different  kinds  of  material 
handled  and  the  process  may  never  become  sufficiently  mechanical 
to  be  done  without  judgment  and  thought  on  the  part  of  the  worker. 

Seaming  or  Joining.  For  convenience  and  speed  in  producing 
factory-made  garments  as  many  operations  as  possible  are  completed 
while  the  garment  or  part  of  it  may  be  laid  flat  on  the  machine  for 

89 


stitching.  In  shirt-making,  the  yoke  and  front  facing  are  put  on, 
the  shoulder  seamed,  and  the  sleeves  set  in  before  the  underarm  seam 
is  sewn  or  joined.  Joining  on  shirts  is  done  on  a  two-needle  cylinder- 
bed  sewing  machine,  which  closes  the  body  and  the  sleeve  in  a  single 
flat-fell  seam.  For  this  work,  the  operator  lays  the  two  edges  to  be 
joined  over  each  other,  lapping  them  about  a  half  inch,  and  inserts 
the  two  edges  into  the  double  feller  attached  to  the  presser  foot,  through 
which  the  seam  passes  to  have  the  edges  turned  in,  guides  the  work 
so  as  to  keep  the  turn-in  even,  and  slips  the  body  and  sleeve  over  the 
cylinder  extending  out  in  front  of  the  presser  foot  as  the  seam  is  sewn. 

This  operation  is  simple  or  difficult  according  to  the  kind  of  cloth 
used,  firm  cotton  cloth  being  rather  easy  to  handle  and  the  silk 
and  light-weight  madras  requiring  considerable  skill  for  successful  work. 
The  garment  is  only  slightly  shaped,  so  the  sewing  of  this  seam  has 
less  effect  on  the  shape  of  the  garment  than  the  same  seam  in  shirt- 
waists, coats,  and  dresses. 

Collar  bands.  Putting  on  the  collar  band  is  considered  by  many 
operators  the  most  difficult  operation  in  shirt  making.  In  this  opera- 
tion the  worker  sews  the  collar  band  to  the  shirt  with  a  plain  seam  or 
with  one  row  of  stitching  when  the  lower  edges  of  the  band  made  by 
another  operator  have  been  turned  in  ready  to  be  put  on  the  shirt. 
As  the  seam  must  be  of  uniform  depth,  and  the  curved  part  of  the  neck 
of  the  shirt  stitched  or  held  in  during  the  process,  the  work  demands 
considerable  skill  and  judgment.  The  distance  from  the  center 
part  of  the  shoulder  seam  must  also  be  the  same  on  both  sides  of  the 
shirt  to  insure  the  right  set  of  the  finished  garment. 

This  worker  needs  to  know  how  the  finished  shirt  should  look  and 
how  to  correct  imperfect  or  uneven  work,  such  as  unequal  spacing  of 
seams  or  seams  of  too  great  depth.  Depth  of  seams  is  sometimes 
regulated  by  a  gauge  which  relieves  the  worker  of  part  of  the  responsi- 
bility in  this  operation. 

The  operations  described  above  constitute  the  major  operations 
in  shirt  making  other  than  cutting,  examining,  making  buttonholes, 
and  sewing  on  buttons.  These  latter  operations  are  discussed  for  all 
the  industries  on  pages  67  to  70,  inclusive,  of  this  report. 

The  Overall  Industry. 

Cincinnati  is  one  of  the  largest  centers  for  the  manufacture  of  over- 
alls in  the  United  States.  For  the  year  ending  December  31st,  1914, 
five  factories  were  reported  and  929  employees.  Since  this  time,  the 
number  of  workers  has  increased — one  factory  alone  reporting  535 
employees.  Further  indication  of  growth  and  demand  for  workers  is 
shown  in  the  increased  capacity  for  output  and  workers  in  one  of  the 
largest  factories  which  is  doubling  its  plant. 

The  overall  industry  is  an  all-the-y ear- round  industry  for  90%  of 
the  employees.  This  statement,  made  by  the  manufacturers  of  over- 
alls, is  verified  by  organized  labor.  A  proportion  of  the  workers  take 
a  vacation  voluntarily  during  the  summer  of  one  week  or  more  but  work 
is  steady  for  those  who  wish  it. 

This  industry  is  also  virtually  standardized  for  the  entire  country. 
Garments  vary  somewhat  in  different  factories,  but  the  operations 
are  standardized  and  the  piece  rates  for  the  operations  are  also  stand- 

90 


ardized,  the  scale  for  them  worked  out  and  agreed  upon  by  manufac- 
turers and  organized  labor  each  year  and  published  for  use  throughout 
the  United  States. 

Booklets  containing  the  piece  rates  are  available  for  the  workers 
who  may  in  this  way  keep  themselves  informed  about  standard  piece 
rates  for  all  operations  and  check  up  earnings.  The  workers  in  this 
industry  are  more  strongly  organized  than  in  any  other  branch  of  the 
garment  industries.  It  is  estimated  that  they  are  virtually  100  per 
cent  organized  in  Cincinnati.  Manufacturers  of  overalls  are  also 
organized  nationally.  Local  manufacturers  of  overalls  also  belong 
to  the  garment  manufacturers  association  of  Cincinnati  which  includes 
representatives  from  every  branch  of  the  garment  industries. 

All  work  on  overalls  is  done  on  machine.  The  cloth  is  spread 
for  the  cutter  by  machine,  cutting  is  done  by  means  of  the  electric 
cutting  machine,  all  making  operations  are  done  by  machine,  and  the 
pressing  is  also  done  by  machine.  As  in  other  branches  of  the  garment 
industries  cutting  occupies  an  important  place  and  is  sufficiently  simi- 
lar in  all  branches  to  be  treated  in  a  general  way.  This  has  been  done 
in  the  preceding  pages  of  this  report. 

The  sewing  processes  used  for  overalls  are  for  the  most  part  done 
on  specially  constructed  machines.  Where  the  single-needle  lock- 
stitch machine  is  used,  the  machines  are  usually  of  a  heavier  type 
than  those  used  for  lighter  fabrics  and  the  adjustment  of  machines 
is  made  to  suit  the  weight  and  thickness  of  the  fabric.  Felling  is  used 
extensively  and  is  done  on  the  two-needle  cylinder  machine  and  the 
two-needle  flat  bed  machine.  Buttons  or  snappers  are  clamped  into 
the  garment  by  machine.  Buttonholes  are  made  by  the  machine 
process  commonly  used  in  all  garment  factories.  The  processes  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  overalls  and  jackets  are  pocket  making,  side 
seaming,  felling,  hemming,  sleeve  setting,  buttonholes,  tacking  and 
clamping  on  buttons  and  snappers. 

Sewing  Processes  Denned. 

Pockets :  Two  types  of  pockets  are  used,  the  patch  pocket  and  the 
set-in  pocket.  When  the  patch  pocket  is  used,  the  patch  is  hemmed 
on  the  two-needle  flat  bed  machine  which  puts  in  two  row's  of  stitching 
in  one  operation.  The  pocket  is  then  placed  in  position  on  the  garment 
and  sewed  in  place  also  on  the  two-needle  machine.  The  use  of  the 
two-needle  machine  simplifies  the  process  and  the  fabric  which  is  firm 
is  readily  handled  by  this  method.  Patch  pockets  are  used  on  jackets, 
as  well  as  on  overalls.  The  method  described  in  the  foregoing  pages 
of  this  report,  is  used  for  the  set-in  pocket  except  that  overalls  do  not 
demand  as  careful  and  exact  work  as  do  tailored  coats  or  trousers. 

Seams  are  made  almost  exclusively  on  the  two-needle  machine 
which  makes  a  flat  fell.  The  side  seams  are  made  on  the  two-needle 
flat  bed  machine.  The  work  may  be  laid  flat  under  the  presser  foot 
and  the  inner  or  joining  seams  on  the  legs  of  the  trousers  and  the  sleeves 
of  the  jacket  are  stitched  on  the  two-needle  cylinder  machine  over 
which  the  operator  pushes  the  garment  while  the  seam  or  fell  is  being 
made.  These  operations  differ  from  the  same  operations  in  other 
lines  of  garment  work  only  in  the  weight  of  the  fabric  and  the  demand 
upon  the  skill  and  ability  of  the  worker  in  handling  it.  This  feature 

91 


is  important,  however,  and  it  should  not  be  assumed  that  a  person 
who  is  successful  in  felling  light  fabrics  will  succeed  in  felling  heavy 
fabrics  or  that  the  reverse  is  true.  The  texture  and  weight  of  the  cloth 
are  important  in  this  as  in  all  branches  of  the  garment  work. 

Sleeve  Setting  is  a  special  machine  process.  When  the  sleeve 
is  set  after  the  under  arm  and  shoulder  seams  have  been  sewed,  it  is 
done  on  a  machine  called  a  sleever.  For  this  operation  the  worker 
places  the  sleeve  in  position  in  the  armhole  of  the  garment  and  lays 
the  two  parts  together,  over  a  cylinder  and  under  the  presser  foot. 
This  machine  sews  from  side  to  side  instead  of  from  left  to  right  as  the 
seam  is  sewed  and  the  cording  or  cornering  of  the  seam  is  made. 

Sleeve  setting  is  also  done  by  means  of  the  two-needle  flat  fell 
machine.  This  operation  is  more  difficult  than  the  usual  flat  fell  seam- 
ing on  account  of  the  shaped  edges  to  be  run  into  the  felling  attach- 
ment. The  cloth  used  is  firm,  however,  and  except  for  the  weight  is 
more  easily  managed  for  this  process  than  the  light  soft  fabrics  and 
for  other  garments. 

Buttonholes  are  all  machine  made  by  the  method  described  on  page  91 . 
A  method  similar  to  buttonhole  making  is  used  for  tacking  and  making 
eyelets.  This  process  is  also  described  elsewhere  in  the  report  (page  82) . 

Buttons  used  on  overalls  are  clamped  into  the  cloth  by  machine. 
For  this  process,  the  worker  places  the  edge  of  the  garment  under  the 
clamp  and  with  a  treadle  starts  the  machine  which  automatically 
drops  the  button  in  place  and  places  the  clamps  into  position  on  the 
wrong  side  of  the  cloth.  As  the  button  and  clamp  come  together 
the  machine  presses  the  hilt  or  stem  of  the  button  through  the  cloth 
and  clamps  or  rivets  the  two  together.  When  the  operation  is  com- 
pleted the  machine  stops  automatically. 

Although  this  operation  is  largely  automatic  the  worker  spaces 
the  buttons  and  determines  the  alignment.  This  requires  good  judg- 
ment and  the  ability  to  measure  by  eye  accurately. 

Women's  Wear. 

The  name  "Women's  Wear"  applies  to  a  large  group  of  garment 
industries  which  make  both  outer  apparel  and  undergarments.  The 
most  important  of  these  are  the  wrapper  and  kimono  industry,  the 
dress  and  waist  industry,  the  manufacture  of  undermuslins  and  lin- 
gerie, and  tailored  garments  or  the  cloak,  suit,  and  skirt  industry. 
With  the  exception  of  the  latter,  these  industries  are  scattered  in 
Cincinnati  and  employ  relatively  few  workers.  They  are  engaged 
almost  exclusively  in  what  is  called  the  "filling  in"  trade,  which  supple- 
ments but  does  not  supply  the  product  for  the  stores  of  Cincinnati 
and  the  neighboring  towns  in  Kentucky  and  Ohio.  These  industries 
have  come  into  existence  in  Cincinnati  within  the  last  ten  or  twelve 
years.  The  cloak,  suit  and  skirt  industry,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  old 
established  industry  dating  back  to  1841,  or  earlier,  according  to 
official  records.  This  branch  of  the  industry,  which  for  many  years 
has  supplied  a  large  local,  southern,  and  western  trade,  has  already 
been  described  in  this  report  as  a  branch  of  the  tailoring  industry, 
with  which  it  is  more  closely  identified. 

The  kimono  and  wrapper  industry  has  grown  rapidly  in  the  past 
year.  According  to  the  report  of  the  Industrial  Commission  of  Ohio 

92 


for  the  year  ending  December  31st,  1914,  two  factories  were  employ- 
ing 44  workers.  Six  months  later  one  factory  alone  was  employing 
more  than  40  workers.  This  industry  is  less  affected  by  change  in 
style  than  dresses  and  waists  and  is  practically  an  all-year-around 
industry  for  the  majority  of  the  employees. 

The  dress  and  waist  industry  is  a  small  one  and  so  scattered  that 
the  factories  have  been  classified  with  the  miscellaneous  group  in  the 
report  of  the  Industrial  Commission  of  Ohio  for  the  year  ending  Decem- 
ber 31st,  1914.  This  miscellaneous  group  also  includes  the  undermuslin 
industry,  lingerie,  and  children's  clothing.  Two  factories  are  making 
cotton  and  linen  semi- tailored  dresses,  and  silk  and  voile  dresses  such 
as  retail  for  $2.50  to  $15.00  each. 

The  women's  wear  industries  use  the  same  general  divisions  of 
factory  organizations  as  are  used  in  all  other  lines  of  the  garment  indus- 
tries, with  the  exception  that  all  pressing  which  is  light  pressing  or  iron- 
ing is  not  used  as  extensively  as  in  the  clothing  industry,  for  example, 
and  is  therefore  relatively  less  important. 

Cutting  is  perhaps  lighter  work  in  this  group  of  garment  industries 
than  in  the  clothing  industry,  as  fabrics  are  lighter  and  the  work  some- 
what less  exacting  because  of  the  simplicity  of  the  garments  and  lower 
cost  of  fabrics ;  but  the  process  is  essentially  the  same  in  all  the  garment 
industries.  Descriptions  of  the  operations  and  requirements  for  work- 
ers in  the  cutting  department  have  been  described  on  page  67  of  this 
report. 

Sewing  processes  in  the  women's  wear  industries  are  much  the 
same  in  all  lines  except  for  the  type  of  garment  construction,  differences 
in  the  fabrics,  and  methods  of  handling  them.  These  have  also  been 
discussed  in  a  previous  chapter  of  this  report.  The  sewing  processes 
are  those  that  contribute  to  the  construction  of  the  garments  and  those 
that  are  used  in  finishing  the  garments.  There  are  also  certain  special 
processes  which  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  decoration  or  for  finishing. 
Roughly  classified  for  this  group  of  industries  the  garment  construction 
processes  are:  Seaming,  shoulder  joining,  sleeve  making,  sleeve  setting, 
collar  setting,  joining  waist,  and  skirt  and  skirt  seaming  and  hemming; 
the  finishing  processes  are  felling,  binding,  tacking,  banding,  sewing 
on  hooks  and  eyes,  snappers,  and  buttons,  and  making  buttonholes. 
The  special  processes  most  commonly  used  are  hemstitching  and  tucking. 

Seaming,  sometimes  called  joining,  is  sewing  the  parts  of  the  waist 
together  with  a  plain  seam,  a  French  seam,  or  a  felled  seam,  according 
to  the  type  or  style  of  garment  and  the  fabric  used.  For  this  operation 
the  worker  places  the  pieces  of  fabric  to  be  joined  under  the  presser-foot, 
or  inserts  the  edges  in  the  hemmer  if  a  felled  seam  is  used,  and  stitches 
the  seam  of  uniform  depth,  holding  in  or  stretching  the  fabric  during 
the  stitching  process  if  necessary. 

Waist  seams  are  short  and  the  manipulation  of  the  cloth  in  making 
this  seam  is  relatively  simple  as  the  machine  need  not  be  stopped  on  the 
stitch  as  for  some  other  parts ;  but  the  worker  must  know  the  parts  of 
the  garment  and  how  they  should  be  put  together  in  order  to  do  this 
work  successfully.  A  little  stretching  of  the  fabric  in  the  wrong  place 
or  an  unnecessary  holding  in  of  the  fabric  may  destroy  the  shape  of  the 
garment.  Skirt  seams  are  long  and  the  greater  amount  of  fabric  to  be 
handled  makes  the  skirt  seaming  more  difficult  for  some  workers. 

93 


Skirt  seams  should  be  stitched  without  stopping  the  machine.  To  do 
this  successfully  depends  upon  muscular  habits  which  call  into  play  the 
back  as  well  as  the  arms.  A  waist  seamer  does  not  readily  become  a 
skirt  seamer  because  she  has  acquired  muscular  habits  adapted  to  short 
work  and  does  not  handle  the  larger  pieces  successfully. 

Except  on  cheap  product  this  process  is  not  assigned  to  an  operator 
until  she  has  demonstrated  her  ability  to  use  the  sewing  machine  skill- 
fully and  to  understand  the  parts  of  the  garment  and  methods  of  putting 
them  together. 

On  the  cheaper  garments  the  over-lock  stitch  is  frequently  used  as 
it  eliminates  one  stitching  and  covers  the  seam  with  stitching  resembling 
a  crocheted  edge  which  forms  a  finish.  When  this  method  is  used, 
the  operator  must  also  know  how  to  use  the  interlock  machine  which 
is  more  complicated  than  the  single  needle  lock-stitch  machine  used 
for  the  other  methods  of  seaming. 

Shoulder  joining  is  also  seaming.  The  same  methods  may  be  used 
for  this  seam  as  for  the  underarm  seam  or  they  may  be  joined  by  a  two- 
needle  machine  in  a  flat-felled  seam  as  described  under  skirt  making. 
Although  a  simpler  process  in  some  respects  than  making  the  underarm 
seam  this  is  an  important  one,  especially  when  lingerie,  silk  or  crepe  de 
chine  fabrics  are  used,  for  the  shape  of  both  the  neck  and  the  arm  size 
of  the  garment  have  to  be  kept  to  size  in  this  process.  For  this  reason 
this  process  is  also  given  to  experienced  workers. 

Sleeve-making  may  include  trimming  and  seaming.  When  trim- 
ming is  used  it  is  sewed  to  the  sleeve  before  the  seams  are  joined.  The 
same  general  principles  apply  to  seaming  sleeves  as  to  seaming  the 
waist.  The  worker  must  know  how  to  put  the  parts  together  so  that 
the  sleeve  when  in  the  garment  will  hang  properly.  One  of  the  parts  of 
the  sleeve  shifted  slightly  out  of  position  or  stretched  makes  considerable 
difference  on  the  fore  or  "drape"  of  the  sleeve.  This  operation  is  not 
very  difficult  when  firm  fabrics  are  used,  but  when  soft  thin  fabrics  are 
used  it  requires  considerable  manipulative  skill,  technical  knowledge 
of  the  process  and  the  fabric,  and  judgment. 

The  importance  of  this  process  in  a  factory  depends  therefore  upon 
the  grade  of  product  made  and  the  kind  of  fabrics  used. 

Sleeve  setting  in  all  branches  of  the  garment  industries  requires 
the  highest  degree  of  skill  in  garment  construction.  Although  sleeves 
are  set  without  basting  in  many  of  the  garments,  the  seams  must  be  of 
uniform  depth,  gathers  scattered  evenly,  and  in  the  same  position  in 
both  sleeves.  This  calls  for  exact  and  careful  work,  knowledge  of  the 
garment,  good  judgment,  and  a  high  degree  of  skill  in  handling  the  work 
in  the  stitching  process,  which,  because  it  must  be  sewed  on  a  curve 
and  so  may  not  be  laid  flat  under  the  presser  foot,  is  difficult  to  manage. 

Sleeve  setting  is  done  only  by  the  most  skilled  and  experienced 
workers  in  the  factory,  and  except  on  cheap  product  is  not  assigned  to 
an  operator  until  she  has  demonstrated  her  ability  to  do  other  seaming 
successfully. 

Collar  setting  is  sewing  the  collar  to  the  neck  line  of  the  garment  by 
a  plain  seam  or  with  a  bias  facing  or  binding  to  cover  the  seam.  For 
this  work  the  operator  places  the  middle  of  the  collar  to  the  middle  of 
the  garment  and  the  ends  equidistant  from  the  edges  so  that  the  collar 
appears  alike  on  both  sides  of  the  garment.  In  this  process,  the  opera- 

94 


tor  must  know  the  exact  amount  of  stretching  or  holding  in  of  the 
fabric  necessary,  for  both  the  collar  and  the  neck  are  as  a  rule  somewhat 
curved  or  shaped  and  may  easily  be  stretched  out  of  shape  in  the  sewing 
process. 

The  requirements  for  this  process  are  practically  the  same  as  for 
sleeve  setting. 

Hemming  is  done  with  the  aid  of  a  hemmer  attachment  which  regu- 
lates the  depth  of  the  hem  and  helps  to  regulate  the  amount  of  cloth 
turned  in  along  the  edge  to  be  stitched.  This  process  is  simple  or  diffi- 
cult according  to  the  depth  of  the  hem,  the  shape  of  the  edge  to  be 
hemmed,  and  the  kind  of  fabric  used.  The  very  narrow  hem,  made  to 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  or  less  in  width,  requires  more  careful  and  skillful 
manipulation  of  the  work,  as  a  rule,  than  the  quarter-inch,  half-inch, 
or  wider  hem.  The  shape  of  the  edge  to  be  hemmed  presents  the  most 
difficult  problem.  The  straight  edge  lengthwise  of  the  fabric  is  the 
simplest  hem.  as  the  fabric  stretches  less  along  the  warp  threads  and 
thus  may  be  fed  into  the  hemmer  uniformly  without  much  difficulty. 
The  straight  edge  on  the  width  of  the  fabric  requires  slightly  more  skill 
in  handling  as  all  fabrics  stretch  to  some  extent  along  the  woof  threads 
of  the  width.  The  bias  edge  is  more  difficult  to  handle  as  it  stretches 
readily.  The  amount  to  be  fed  in,  the  position  of  the  cloth  on  the 
machine  during  the  hemming  process,  and  the  amount  of  fabric  to  be 
turned  in  for  the  hem,  present  problems  for  the  worker  very  different 
from  the  straight  hem.  The  shaped  edge,  as  the  bottom  of  the  skirt, 
waist,  or  edge  of  a  shaped  collar,  is  also  difficult  to  handle;  and  as  the 
edge  may  be  straight,  bias  or  curved  at  different  points,  the  making  of 
the  hem  presents  all  the  problems  involved  in  the  hems  just  described 
plus  the  problem  of  fitting  an  edge  to  a  line  of  shorter  length  after  the 
principle  of  concentric  circles.  For  this  part,  the  worker  must  know 
where  to  lay  the  pleats  or  hold  in  the  cloth  so  that  the  hem  when  finished 
and  pressed  will  have  a  straight  line  along  the  edge  and  also  a  straight 
line  of  stitching  equidistant  at  all  points  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  hem. 

As  there  is  no  rule  or  guide  to  determine  these  things,  the  worker 
must  learn  by  experience  how  to  handle  the  garment  in  making  the  hem 
stitching  in  proper  line  along  the  edge  of  the  hem.  It  is  also  necessary 
for  her  to  know  the  fabrics  she  uses  and  the  way  the  texture  or  grain  of 
the  cloth  should  lie  in  the  hem.  The  kind  of  fabric  to  be  hemmed  is 
also  an  important  factor  in  this  process.  Firm  fabrics  with  some  dress- 
ing are  more  easily  handled  than  soft,  thin,  or  flimsy  fabrics. 

Hemming,  although  similar  in  all  lines  of  garment  making,  differs 
in  the  various  lines  of  garment  work  and  requires  therefore  a  knowledge 
of  the  garment  or  garments  made.  This  operation  requires  a  high  degree 
of  manipulative  skill,  knowledge  of  fabrics,  and  knowledge  of  the  use 
and  adjustment  of  the  hemmer. 

Felling  is  a  process  frequently  used  for  seaming.  The  fell  is  made 
by  means  of  a  hemmer  attachment  which  turns  in  the  edges  of  the  cloth 
and  sews  two  pieces  together  in  a  seam,  with  a  single  row  of  stitching. 
This  seam  has  replaced  the  standard  French  seam  which  requires  two 
rows  of  stitching  and  turning  by  hand.  The  flat  fell  is  made  by  means 
of  the  two-needle  machine  with  a  double  hemmer  attachment  which 
turns  in  the  edges  of  the  fabric  and  regulates  the  width  of  the  seam. 

95 


For  the  standing  fell  the  operator  places  together  the  two  pieces  to 
be  joined  with  the  edges  pointing  in  the  same  direction.  The  operator 
places  the  edge  of  one  piece  slightly  beyond  the  edge  of  the  other  piece, 
inserts  the  two  together  in  the  hemmer  and  completes  the  operation  as 
for  hemming. 

The  operator  who  fells  seams  uses  a  combined  knowledge  of  seaming 
and  garment  construction  necessary  for  successful  seaming  and  hem- 
ming. For  the  flat  felled  seam,  the*  operator  places  together  the  two 
edges  to  be  joined  with  the  edges  pointing  in  opposite  directions  and 
lapped  sufficiently  to  allow  for  the  seam  and  the  turn  on  the  two  edges. 
The  two-needle  flat  fell  seam  is  used  most  extensively  on  straight  or 
nearly  straight  seams  and  the  two  pieces  of  cloth  demand  about  the  same 
manipulation.  When  the  two-needle  flat  fell  is  used  for  shaped  seams 
as  in  setting  the  shirt  sleeve  which  has  a  slightly  curved  edge  the  opera- 
tor has  the  double  problem  of  guiding  the  cloth  through  the  attach- 
ment and  equalizing  the  feed  so  that  the  seam  appears  flat  and  uniformly 
finished  on  both  sides  of  the  garment. 

This  operation  like  all  others  described  for  this  group  of  industries 
varies  according  to  the  type  of  garment  made  and  the  kinds  of  fabric 
used. 

Binding,  tacking,  sewing  on  buttons,  and  making  buttonholes  have 
been  described  in  the  earlier  pages  of  this  report.  Sewing  on  snappers 
and  hooks  and  eyes  is  done  by  hand  or  by  a  machine  resembling  the 
button-sewing  machine,  for  which  requirements  are  practically  the  same. 

Hemstitching  is  a  special  machine  process  which  requires  little  or 
no  knowledge  of  garment  construction.  It  is  used  for  finishing  and  for 
decorative  purposes. 

For  this  work  the  operator  places  under  the  presser-foot  the  part  to 
be  hemstitched  and  guides  the  work  under  the  presser-foot  during  the 
stitching  process.  She  must  keep  her  work  in  line,  and  hold  it  firm  so 
as  to  keep  the  fabric  from  puckering  during  the  stitching  process.  She 
is  required  to  do  this  work  with  the  fabric  in  any  position  and  must  be 
able  to  handle  the  goods  lengthwise,  crosswise,  bias  and  shaped.  Added 
to  the  problems  of  handling  the  different  kinds  of  fabric  which  involves 
the  same  problems  as  hemming  is  the  responsibility  for  the  operation  of 
the  complex  machine.  Two  plungers  which  pierce  the  hole  in  the  cloth, 
two  needles,  two  tensions  and  four  threads  must  be  watched  and  kept 
in  working  condition  or  reported  to  be  put  in  condition. 

This  work  is  so  distinctly  a  special  process  and  the  demand  for  it 
during  the  past  three  or  four  years  for  all  types  of  women's  and  children's 
garments  for  both  summer  and  winter  wear  has  made  it  very  desirable 
work  for  the  person  who  is  willing  to  specialize  in  one  line  of  work.  It 
is  not  readily  mastered  by  the  young  person,  especially  in  the  branches 
of  the  industry  which  use  the  finer  fabrics. 

Tucking  is  also  a  special  operation.  Two  forms  of  tucking  are  com- 
monly used,  one  known  as  strip  tucking  and  the  other  as  garment  tuck- 
ing Strip  tucking  is  done  on  lengths  of  goods  before  the  garment  is  cut. 
These  lengths  vary  but  tucks  are  figured  to  the  hundred  yards  and  piece 
rates  are  set  per  hundred  yards  of  tucking.  This  work  requires  much 
the  same  knowledge  of  fabrics  and  manipulative  skill  as  hemstitching, 
and,  to  some  extent,  ability  similar  to  that  used  for  hemming,  as  the 
guiding  of  the  cloth  over  the  arm,  which  folds  the  cloth,  and  under  the 

96 


presser  foot  and  guide  is  done  somewhat  as  hemming  is  done.  Like 
hemstitching,  it  is  also  done  by  experienced  operators  who  have  special- 
ized in  the  work. 

Men's  Neckwear. 

Cincinnati  has  two  factories  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  men's 
cravats.  From  the  standpoint  of  numbers  employed  this  industry  is 
small.  It  represents,  however,  a  high  grade  of  machine  sewing  work, 
and  for  a  small  group  of  workers  having  the  requisite  skill  it  furnishes 
desirable  employment.  Some  of  the  work  for  this  industry  is  done  in 
the  homes  of  the  workers  and  in  convents  in  the  surrounding  districts 
of  Cincinnati.  No  contract  shops  in  the  residential  districts  were  found. 

The  work  on  neckwear  is  light,  lighter  than  in  any  other  branch  of 
the  industry  and  the  operations  less  complicated.  The  fabrics  used  are 
silk,  cotton,  silk  and  cotton,  and  silk  and  linen  mixtures  which  require 
careful  handling.  Specially  constructed  light  weight  machines  are 
used;  the  double  thread  lock-stitch  machine  and  the  single  thread 
chain  stitch  machine  are  the  ones  in  most  common  use.  However, 
attachments  and  guides  are  also  used.  A  special  machine  which  sews 
or  joins  the  long  seam  of  the  cravat  from  the  right  side  and  attaches 
with  it  the  cotton  interlining  which  is  used,  is  found  in  some  factories. 
Where  this  machine  is  used  the  turning  of  the  cravat  and  inserting  and 
tacking  of  the  interlining  is  eliminated. 

The  main  operations  of  neckwear  manufacture  are  designing  and 
cutting,  hemming,  joining  of  pieces,  inserting  and  interlining,  stitching 
the  back,  and  pressing.  Designing  and  cutting,  as  in  all  branches  of 
the  garment  industries,  represents  the  highest  grade  of  the  work,  and 
involves  much  the  same  problems  of  style  and  taste.  Joining  the 
pieces  in  a  plain  seam  and  stitching  the  back  along  the  neck  line  are 
simple  processes  which  are  not  sufficiently  unlike  these  operations  in 
other  lines  to  need  special  description. 

These  operations,  though  few  and  relatively  simple,  are  varied  by  the 
materials  that  are  used  and  the  different  styles  made.  String,  straight- 
bat-wing,  bias-bat-wing,  Windsor,  straight-four-in-hand,  bias-four-in- 
hand,  ready-made  bows,  and  four-in-hand  and  puff  ties  represent  the 
main  types  of  cravats.  Each  of  these  is  made  in  innumerable  grades 
of  the  fabrics  mentioned  above,  no  two  of  which  may  be  handled  in 
exactly  the  same  way. 

Hemming  the  cravat,  especially  when  it  is  cut  on  the  bias,  is  the 
most  difficult  operation.  For  this  work  the  operator  inserts  the  edge 
of  the  cravat  in  the  proper  foot  hemmer  which  turns  a  very  narrow  hem 
and  guides  the  fabric  as  the  hem  is  being  stitched.  Guiding  the  bias 
edge  which  stretches  and  frays  in  any  but  the  most  skilled  hands,  and 
turning  the  corners,  is  difficult  and  exacting  work.  As  fabrics  used  vary 
greatly  in  texture  the  demands  upon  the  worker  vary  constantly. 

Seaming  is  sewing  the  edges  of  the  tie  together  so  as  to  form  a  tube. 
For  this  work  the  operator  stretches  the  tie  to  a  given  measurement  so 
that  when  it  is  turned  it  will  be  the  right  length.  As  all  ties  are  made 
to  standard  neck  measures  and  turning  reduces  the  length  of  the  tie 
the  amount  of  stretching  must  be  of  the  right  proportion;  hence  the 
work  requires  accuracy  and  considerable  judgment  for  the  materials 
used  vary  in  weave  and  stretching  qualities,  the  extent  of  which  must 
be  learned  by  experience. 


Joining  or  making  the  short-seam  is  plain  stitching  and  it  is  very 
simple  work.  Inserting  the  interlining  is  putting  in  the  canton  flannel 
interlining  with  a  long  steel  rod  which  has  a  pointed  end  to  hold  the 
interlining  as  it  passes  through  the  tie.  When  this  has  been  done  an 
operator  puts  in  two  rows  of  stitching  across  the  back  of  the  tie  to  hold 
the  interlining  and  the  label.  These  processes  are  very  simple  and  may 
be  learned  in  a  few  days  after  the  operator  has  learned  to  control  the 
machine. 

CHAPTER  X. 
What  The  School  May  Teach  Garment  Workers.* 

The  foregoing  study  of  the  garment  industries  and  the  analysis 
contained  in  this  chapter  give  in  some  detail  the  division  of  work  in 
the  garment  industries  and  show  their  relation  to  each  other  for  the 
purpose  of  indicating  the  type  of  training  that  may  be  given  (1)  to 
workers  who  may  become  all-round  workers  in  terms  of  modern 
industry's  conception  of  all-round  ability,  and  (2)  to  those  workers  who 
may  become  specialists  in  one,  or  at  most  two  or  three  operations,  in 
any  one  of  the  several  branches  of  the  industry.  It  is  too  thoroughly 
recognized  by  industry,  and  by  laymen  as  well,  I  trust,  that  being  a 
garment  worker  in  one  branch  or  specialty  of  the  industry  constitutes 
for  that  person  a  trade  and  a  life  time  may  be  spent  in  acquiring  all 
the  skills  and  all  the  knowledge  necessary  for  that  work,  to  make  it 
essential  to  do  more  than  indicate  here  that  this  study  does  not  seek 
to  promulgate  a  plan  to  train  garment  "tinkers"  which  would  be  the 
inevitable  result  if  pupils  were  expected  to  run  the  entire  gamut  of  the 
garment  industries  with  no  specialization  whatever.  Specialization  is 
as  essential  in  industry  as  it  is  in  teaching  or  in  business.  That  there 
are  narrowing  phases  of  the  work  is  recognized.  Comparison  with 
teaching,  for  example,  will  show  many  analogies  in  breadth  of  work 
and  in  narrowness,  in  variety  and  in  monotony.  Industry  does  not  by 
any  means  have  a  monoply  on  narrow  specialization  of  work  and 
monotony  of  labor. 

The  plan  recommended  for  Cincinnati  is  what  has  been  called  the 
half-and-half  plan  (see  page  16)  which  provides  for  one-half  of  the 
school  day  in  the  workshop  and  the  other  half  in  instruction  in  related 
trade  and  technical  subjects  and  general  vocational  information  which  is 
necessary  for  the  intelligent,  successful  worker.  The  extreme  of  speciali- 
zation would  not  require  so  long  a  course.  The  fullest  usefulness  of  this 
longer  course  is  questioned  by  some  advocates  of  vocational  education. 
It  remains  for  the  school  in  co-operation  with  industry  to  demonstrate 
the  advantages  of  this  plan  and  of  the  shorter  course  with  part-time 
instruction  in  the  school  for  persons  at  work  in  the  industry.  The 
latter  will  require  some  adjustment  in  hours  of  work  for  the  younger 
employees  which  industry  is  not  making  at  the  present  time.  In  the 
interim  between  present  conditions  and  the  new  adjustment  the  schools 
may  use  with  profit  their  present  opportunities  in  finding  out  what 
to  teach,  how  to  give  the  instruction,  and  how  to  relate  it  with  industry. 

*  This  report  and  the  accompanying  suggestions  for  educating  and  training 
the  workers  is  based  upon  modern  industry  and  not  upon  the  craftsman's  work. 
The  attempt  to  compare  two  wholly  different  conditions  of  work  and  widely  different 
products  which  give  little  basis  for  comparison  is  the  cause  of  much  erroneous 
thinking  and  confusion  in  discussion.  The  reader  is  urged  to  keep  this  distinction 
in  mind  in  reading  this  analysis. 

98 


The  educational  program  f  for  a  group  of  pupils  being  trained  for 
occupations  in  the  garment  trades  should  provide  for  the  acquisition  of 

1.  Skill  t   through  practice  in  the  construction  and  finishing  of  gar- 
ments for  the  purpose  of  developing  a  normal  rate  of  output  and  tech- 
nique of  work. 

2.  Related  trade  and  technical   knowledge   that   contributes  to 
intelligent  application  of  the  principles  of  garment  making,  of  computa- 
tions— where  these  are  needed — of  such  principles  of  art  as  apply  to 
the  garments  in  hand,  of  qualities  and  textures  of  fabrics,  and  uses  of 
fabrics,   business   English,    spelling — trade   vocabulary   of  words   and 
trade  phrases. 

3.  General  vocational  knowledge  that  applies  in  the  practice  of 
the    trade    such  as  the  history    of    the    trade,    business    relationship 
between  employees  and  employers,  labor  laws  under  which  workers  in 
the  garment  trades  are  employed,   including  comparisons  of  the  laws 
affecting  workers  in  other  occupations,  factory  regulations  as  to  fire 
exits,    stairways,  lunchrooms,  dressing  rooms,  hygiene,  especially  the 
hygiene  of  the  industry. 

Skill  Through  Practice  as  a  Factor  in  Educating  and  Training  Garment 

Workers. 

The  practice  element  in  a  course  of  training  for  a  productive 
occupation  is  that  part  of  the  instruction  which  aims  to  develop  in  the 
pupils  manipulative  skill  in  the  use  of  the  sewing  machine  and  in  the 
management  of  the  fabrics  used.  It  is  essential  that  productive 
capacity  be  a  positive  factor  in  the  training  and  to  make  it  so  regulation 
shop  equipment  must  be  provided,  the  product  must  be  of  the  type 
made  and  sold  in  the  local  establishments,  and  the  rate  of  output 
must  closely  approximate  the  normal  rate  of  the  commercial  establish- 
ment. 

Garment  making,  contrary  to  popular  opinion,  is  not  a  jumble 
of  unrelated  processes  in  which  the  machine  plays  the  most  important 
role.  Much  of  the  work  is  dependent,  upon  the  skill  and  judgment 
of  the  worker  and  less  upon  the  type  of  the  machine  than  in  the  machin- 
ist industries,  for  example.  There  are  distinct  phases  of  the  work  which 
are  sufficiently  defined  in  all  work  room  practice  in  the  industry  to 
warrant  their  acceptance  as  a  basis  for  that  phase  of  training  which 
aims  to  develop  skill  and  productivity.  These  are  (1)  the  performance 
of  processes  which  are  as  fundamental  to  garment  making  as  multi- 
plication tables  are  to  certain  arithmetical  computations;  (2)  the 
methods  of  constructing  garments  which  bear  the  same  relation  to 
garment  making  that  the  making  of  joints  bears  to  the  making  of  a 
chair;  and  (3)  methods  of  finishing  which  contribute  to  the  completed 
appearance  of  the  garment.  These  phases  of  the  work  are  constantly 
confused  partly  because  they  overlap  and  partly  because  of  the  pre- 

f  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  garment  trades  are  composed  of 
three  distinct  groups  of  trades:  (1)  designing  and  cutting,  (2)  garment  making, 
the  sewing,  and  (3)  pressing.  In  some  branches  of  the  industry  designing  is  made  a 
separate  division.  This  report  and  the  accompanying  plan  for  training  workers 
for  the  industry  is  concerned  with  the  second  group — the  sewing  occupations. 

J  These  three  divisions  of  the  school  program  are  parallel  and  coordinate  to 
each  other.  The  order  in  the  outline  is,  therefore,  not  significant. 

99 


conceived  notion  that  the  execution  of  a  process  is  the  determining 
factor  in  garment  making.  This  study  analyzes  them  separately 
and  indicates  briefly  their  intermingling  and  interdependence  in  work 
room  practice. 

Reduced  to  lowest  terms  the  processes  are:  Seams,  hems,  facings, 
and  bindings,  including  the  variety  of  ways  these  may  be  made,  and  a 
number  of  types  of  stitching*  on  regulation  sewing  machines — the 
so-called  "plain  stitchers" — and  on  machines  constructed  for  special 
types  of  stitching. 

The  seams  in  common  use  in  the  garment  industries  are  the  plain 
seam,  the  flat  felled  seam,  the  welt  seam,  and  the  hemmed  seamf  which 
is  used  extensively  in  the  factory  trades  to  take  the  place  of  the  French 
seam.  It  is  not  necessary  in  this  study  to  define  these  processes 
except  where  differences  are  marked  as  in  the  case  of  the  hemmed  seam 
noted  above.  It  is  essential,  however,  to  indicate  the  elements  in  these, 
the  doing  of  which  contributes  to  the  acquisition  of  skill.  The  defi- 
nition of  any  one  of  these  processes  for  example  covers  but  a  small  part 
of  the  elements  involved  in  the  doing. 

Knowing  how  to  make  seams  by  no  means  insures  that  applying 
them  to  any  work  will  become  a  mere  application  of  a  generalized 
ability.  This  ability  to  be  useful  must  be  carried  over  and  used  in 
building  up  other  special  abilities.  The  way  the  thing  is  done  is  but 
one  of  four  distinct  phases  in  its  application.  These  four  phases  are 
(1)  the  method  for  doing  the  thing  in  hand  for  which  the  definition 
is  the  description;  (2)  the  direction  of  the  threads  in  the  part  of  the 
fabric  to  be  used  for  the  process;  (3)  the  kind  of  fabric,  its  texture, 
weight,  and  weave;  and  (4)  the  adjustment  of  the  machine  for  the  pro- 
cess in  hand  and  the  type  of  fabric  to  be  used. 

The  method  for  each  process  is  the  first  step  in  the  learning,  and 
the  teacher  eliminates  all  others  from  the  work  during  this  period  by 
providing  fabric  which  is  strong  and  firm,  and  with  threads  running  in 
the  direction  which  gives  least  difficulty  to  the  worker.  With  this 
process  learned  so  that  its  name  recalls  it  to  mind  as  readily  as  7 
times  9  recalls  63  to  the  person  who  has  learned  this  fact  the  other  phases 
of  the  work  follow  as  indicated  below. 

In  an  ascending  order  the  problems  that  fall  under  (2)  above  are 
enumerated,  the  first  presenting  the  fewest  difficulties  to  the  worker 
and  the  last  the  greatest  number  of  difficulties.  These  apply  in  the 
making  of  all  seams,  hems,  facings,  and  bindings.  They  apply  also 
to  stitching  used  for  finishing  where  the  edges  of  the  fabric  are  not  used 
but  to  a  lesser  degree. 

*  Stitching  is  a  term  used  in  the  trade  to  indicate  plain  work,  and,  although 
done  in  some  instances  upon  machines  designed  for  special  types  of  work,  it  is  not 
specialized  work  in  the  sense  that  the  making  of  buttonholes  by  machine,  hemstitch- 
ing, tucking,  and  sewing  on  buttons  are  specialized  work.  For  this  reason  it  should 
not  be  confused  with  special  machine  work  indicated  in  this  and  other  reports.  See 
Bulletins  145,  147,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics. 

t  The  hemmed  seam  is  made  by  placing  the  edges  of  the  two  pieces  to  be 
joined  so  that  one  edge  extends  beyond  the  other  by  a  quarter  of  an  inch  or  more 
according  to  the  depth  of  seam  desired,  and  hemming  the  wide  edge  over  and  cover- 
ing the  narrow  edge  with  a  single  row  of  stitching.  This  seam  when  finished  has 
much  the  same  appearance  as  the  French  seam. 

100 


(1)  In  sewing  together  two  straight  .edges  each  of  which  is  along 
the  length  of  the  fabric  the  stretch  of  the  two  pieces  is  equal  and  the 
edges  stretch  relatively  little  because  they  follow  the  warp  threads 
which  are  the  strong  threads  of  the  fabric. 

(2)  In  sewing  together  a  straight  edge  one  of  which  is  along  the  length 
of  the  fabric  and  the  other  the  width  of  the  fabric  the  stretch  is  unequal, 
the  width-wise  edge  stretches  more  than  the  lengthwise  because    it 
follows  the  woof  threads  which  are  less  strong  than  the  warp  threads. 

(3)  In  sewing  together  two  straight  edges  each  of  which  is  along 
the  width  of  the  fabric,  the  stretch  is  equal,  and  both  pieces  tend  to 
stretch  as  they  are  being  sewed  because  they  follow  the  woof  threads 
of    the    fabrics. 

(4)  In  sewing  together  a  bias  edge  and  a  straight  lengthwise  edge 
the  stretch  is  unequal.     The  lengthwise  edge  tends  not  to  stretch, 
the  bias  stretches  very  readily  as  the  threads  along  the  bias  lie  at  right 
angles  to  each  other  with  the  open  side  of  the  angle  to  edge  so  that 
they  spread  apart  at  the  slighest  touch. 

(5)  In  sewing  together  a  bias  edge  and  a  straight  width  wise  edge 
the  stretch  is  unequal.     The  width  wise  edge  tends  to  stretch  some- 
what, the  bias  edge  stretches  readily.     The  maximum  of  stretch  is 
secured  on  an  edge  along  the  true  bias  for  the  reasons  given  in  (4). 

(6)  In  sewing  two  bias  edges  the  stretch  is  equal  and  the  amount  of 
stretch  may  be  very  great. 

(7)  In  sewing  a  shaped  edge  (slightly  bias  called  garment  bias, 
circular  on  the  convex,  or  on  the  concave  edge)  and  a  straight  length- 
wise edge  the  stretch  of  the  two  edges  is  unequal.     The  shaped  edge 
stretches  readily,  though  less  than  the  bias,  and  the  lengthwise  edge 
tends  to  remain  firm.     A  shaped  edge  stretches  readily  but  less  than 
true  bias. 

(8)  In  sewing  a  shaped  edge  to  a  straight  widthwise  edge  the 
stretch  is  unequal  though  both  edges  may  stretch.     The  straight  edge 
will  be  stretched  less  than  the  shaped  edge. 

(9)  In  sewing  a  shaped  edge  to  a  shaped  edge  of  the  same  shape 
the  stretch  is  equal  but  both  pieces  may  stretch  considerably. 

(10)  In  sewing  two  shaped  edges  of  different  shapings  the  stretch 
will  be  unequal.   The  stretch  of  the  one  nearest  to  the  straight  edge  of  the 
fabric  will  be  less  than  that  of  the  one  more  nearly  bias  or  circular. 

The  worker  may  be  asked  to  handle  these  processes  without  stretch- 
ing the  fabrics  in  which  case  the  worker  must  learn  how  to  prevent 
stretching  when  the  pieces  are  being  handled  and  as  the  stitching  is 
being  done.  It  may  be  necessary  to  stretch  one  or  both  pieces  in 
order  to  shape  the  part  in  which  case  the  worker  must  learn  how  much 
to  stretch  the  edges  and  where  to  stretch  them.  Still  another  problem 
is  holding  in  the  fabric.  Here  again  there  is  no  rule  and  no  standard- 
ization of  machines  to  care  for  this  problem  in  more  than  an  approxi- 
mate degree.  These  problems  are  very  real  and  important  ones  in 
garment  construction  wherever  "shaping"  is  used  to  produce  a  well- 
shaped  garment. 

The  variety  of  fabrics  further  complicates  these  problems  for  the 
worker.  The  weave,  texture,  and  finish  vary  greatly  in  fabrics  of  one 
textile  fibre  and  even  in  those  which  pass  under  the  same  commercial 
name.  The  ability  to  handle  one  type  of  fabric  successfully  does  not 

101 


insure  the  ability  to  handle  others.  It  is  because  of  this  limitless 
variety  in  fabrics  and  the  long  practice  necessary  for  facility  in  using 
them  that  workers  do  not  shift  from  making  muslin  undergarments, 
for  example,  to  the  making  of  woolen  dresses.  New  skills  have  to  be 
acquired  when  a  change  is  made.* 

There  is  no  exact  method  for  determining  the  extent  of  the  stretch 
of  fabric  or  to  measure  the  variations  that  occur.  That  these  are 
definite  problems  in  learning  the  processes  used  in  garment  making  is  a 
fact.  That  generalizations  may  be  made  by  each  worker  through 
experiment  and  practice  which  develops  judgment  that  closely 
approximates  exact  knowledge  is  also  true. 

The  adjustment  of  the  machine  for  these  processes  for  the  various 
kinds  of  fabrics  is  done  by  skilled  machinists  who  adjust  the  parts  to 
scale.  The  sewer's  knowledge  of  this  part  of  the  work  is  largely  a  mat- 
ter of  knowledge  of  satisfactory  or  unsatisfactory  work  which  she 
secures  from  the  machine.  When  not  satisfactory  she  reports  the 
machine  for  repairs.  It  is  just  as  important  that  the  sewer  should  know 
her  machine  as  it  is  that  the  machinist  should  know  adjustments. 
Definite  instruction  in  the  care  of  the  machine  should  be  a  part  of  the 
course,  but  it  should  necessarily  approach  the  matter  from  the  oppo- 
site point  of  view  to  that  used  in  training  a  machinist  who  builds  or 
repairs  machines. 

Process  are  not  taught  apart  from  the  making  of  garments  either  in 
the  factory  or  in  the  school.  This  fact  accounts  in  pert  for  the  exist- 
ing confusion  of  performance  of  processes  and  the  construction  of  gar- 
ments. The  processes  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  gar- 
ments, but  garment  construction  is  more  than  a  series  of  processes. 
It  is  the  putting  together  of  the  parts  which  when  combined  consti- 
tute a  garment.  To  be  an  acceptable  garment  the  parts  must  be  put 
together  in  the  right  relation  to  each  other.  Any  variation  from  this 
right  relation  tends  to  destroy  the  shape  of  the  garment.  This  in  turn 
is  serious  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  deviation  and  the  type  of 
garment.  The  shape  of  the  garment  is  determined  in  part  by  the 
"cut"  or  design  and  in  part  by  the  degree  of  accuracy  with  which  the 
parts  of  the  garment  are  put  together.  The  first  part  is  determined 
by  the  designer  and  the  cutter,  and  the  second  by  the  worker  at  the 
sewing  machine.!  The  construction  of  garments  is  more  than  assem- 
bling of  parts  though  there  are  some  elements  of  assembling  in  garment 
making.  A  worker  may  construct  the  body  of  the  waist,  another  may 
make  the  collar,  another  worker  may  put  all  these  parts  together. 
She  assembles  them,  and,  like  the  man  who  in  assembling  the  parts  of  a 
machine  must  understand  the  construction  of  the  machine,  the  worker 
who  assembles  the  parts  of  the  dress  must  understand  the  construc- 
tion of  the  dress. 

As  processes  are  learned  one  by  one  they  are  applied  to  the  making 
of  garments,  first,  with  the  emphasis  upon  the  method  of  the  process 
and  the  right  manipulation  of  fabrics,  and  second,  with  the  emphasis 
upon  the  constructive  part  of  the  work.  The  garments  for  the  earlier 
part  of  the  course  should  be  simple  in  design,  and  made  of  fabrics 

*  Chapter  IX.,  page  64.     Important  Points  of  Difference. 

t  Pressing  also  helps  to  determine  the  shape  of  a  garment.  That  phase  of  the 
work  is  discussed  in  the  text  under  the  title  "Pressing." 

102 


which  inexperienced  workers  find  least  difficult  to  use.  Cotton  fabrics 
and  linen  of  medium  weight,  firm  weave,  and  with  little  or  no  dressing 
or  finish  are  easiest  to  use  successfully.  Firm,  medium  or  light  weight 
woolen  fabrics  probably  rank  next.  Silk  is  considered  difficult  for  the 
beginner  because  handling  destroys  the  lustre.  Very  thin  fabrics  of 
any  textile  fibre  are  difficult  to  manage.  Very  heavy  fabrics,  fabrics 
of  loose  weave,  and  those  having  a  deep  pile  are  also  difficult  to  manage. 
Care  in  the  selection  of  fabrics  is  important  throughout  the  courses. 

The  application  of  processes  to  the  making  of  garments  for  the 
purpose  of  developing  accurate  work  in  the  performance  of  processes 
and  knowledge  of  garment  construction  should  work  in  an  ascending 
scale.  That  is,  simple  processes,  plain  garments  of  simple  construc- 
tion, and  fine  medium  weight  fabrics  should  be  used  at  first  and  should 
lead  to  more  difficult  processes,  more  complicated  garments,  and  a 
wider  range  of  fabrics.  Alternating  with  the  instruction  and  practice, 
which  are  intended  to  develop  standards  of  work  and  knowledge  of 
garment  construction,  and  following  them  at  the  latter  part  of  the 
course  (the  second  third  or  the  second  half  of  the  course)  definite 
provision  should  be  made  for  intensified  specialization  upon  the 
various  parts  of  garment  work  to  develop  a  high  grade  of  skill  and  a 
desirable  rate  of  output. } 

Objections  may  be  raised  because  the  scheme  proposed  here  does 
not  seem  to  follow  closely  the  established  practice  of  the  industry.  It 
is  because  the  experiences  of  the  workers  in  the  industry  are  not  so 
arranged  as  to  show  their  relationship  to  each  other,  or  as  so  to  utilize 
experience,  ability  and  information  gained  in  one  type  of  work  in 
others  (though  the  industry  frequently  demands  such  shifts  of  the 
workers)  that  the  school  needs  to  do  it.  It  may  be  that  industry 
should  supply  this  training,  but  it  is  undoubtedly  the  business  of  the 
public  to  prove  that  training  for  the  industry  may  be  given  which  will 
benefit  the  worker  and  give  a  return  to  the  employer.  So  long  as 
training  is  given  by  the  school  the  temptation  to  exploit  the  workers 
is  lessened  and  the  school's  opportunity  for  developing  the  pupils' 
preparation  for  intelligent  service  and  good  citizenship  is  increased. 
The  possibility  and  probability  of  study  and  further  education  after 
employment  has  begun  is  materially  strengthened. 

Specialization  is  an  established  factor  in  the  industry  and  must  be 
recognized  in  the  training,  otherwise  a  gap  between  school  training  and 
working  experience  will  result  and  misfits  will  be  an  inevitable  result. 
Thus  far  this  discussion  has  considered  an  all-round  training  in  the 
practical  side  of  garment  making,  but  not  without  indicating  division 
of  work  and  a  type  of  practice  which  is  the  first  step  in  specialization. 

Specialization  in  garment  making  including  process  work  should 
be  provided  throughout  the  course  by  the  team-work  plan*  in  which 
a  number  of  pupils  share  this  work  on  different  parts  of  garments  in 
quantity  and  assemble  the  finished  parts  for  the  completed  garments. 
This  work  may  be  begun  early  in  the  course  after  the  first  two  or  three 

*  Team-work  is  a  term  used  to  designate  division  of  labor  on  any  special  type 
of  garment.  The  circuit  of  work  may  be  distributed  among  many  workers  or 
among  a  few.  The  extent  of  sub-division  depends  upon  the  type  of  work  and  the 
factory  organization. 

t  Discussion  of  the  place  of  the  special  machine  work,  such  as  buttonhole 
making,  is  included  in  the  scheduling  of  the  work.  See  page  91. 

103 


months  of  "sampling"  or  probationary  work.  Other  specialization 
such  as  the  making  of  buttonholes,  tucking,  hemstitching,  and  gather- 
ing on  special  machines  should  also  be  provided,  but  these  should 
follow  specialized  processes  which  are  standardized  by  the  specially 
constructed  machines,  rather  than  precede  the  work  in  processes  and 
garment  construction,  and  the  team-work  specialization  in  garment 
making.  So  long  as  garment  construction  remains  an  important  part  of 
the  garment  industries  this  phase  of  training  should  be  emphasized. 
That  it  will  continue  to  be  important  is  dependent  upon  the  inventor's 
ability  to  supply  machines  which  can  manage  automatically  the  ele- 
ments which  the  worker  now  supplies  in  the  way  of  manipulative 
skill  combined  with  judgment  learned  through  instruction  and  experi- 
ence. The  extent  to  which  a  systematized  course  of  instruction 
based  upon  an  all-round  training  with  carefully  planned  specializa- 
tion in  the  technique  of  industrial  processes  will  exceed  the  incidental 
method  of  the  factory  in  return  to  the  worker  and  profit  to  the  employer, 
will  require  more  than  a  season  or  a  year  to  demonstrate.  That  it  is 
the  duty  of  education  to  make  the  test  is  essential  if  a  democratic  pro- 
gram is  to  be  adopted. 

Related  Subjects  in  the  School  Program. 

Related  trade  and  technical  subjects  are  those  which  contribute 
to  intelligent  knowledge  of  and  practice  in  the  trade.  Instruction  in 
these  subjects  should  parallel  the  practice  in  the  work  room.  This 
calls  for  careful  selection  of  subject  matter,  intelligent  correlation 
of  instruction,  and  thoughtful  co-operation  of  teachers.  It  is  pointed 
out  in  the  preceding  chapters  that  all  teachers  must  understand  the 
trades  for  which  the  pupils  are  being  trained.  This  is  particularly 
necessary  for  those  teachers  who  give  the  instruction  in  the  theoret- 
ical aspects  of  the  work  if  this  phase  of  the  training  is  to  be  kept  above 
the  level  of  mere  telling  about  the  industry. 

When  considered  for  a  single  process  or  an  occupation  in  the  nar- 
rowest sense,  the  trade  and  technical  knowledge  required  of  a  worker 
seems  quite  limited.  When  considered  for  a  group  of  occupations, 
it  is  considerable.  That  the  necessary  subject  matter  is  limited  to  a 
minimum  is  not  a  fair  estimate  of  the  work  or  of  its  possibilities  in 
satisfaction  to  the  worker.  It  is  hoped,  therefore,  that  the  prospective 
teacher  in  reading  this  study  with  a  view  to  planning  the  school  pro- 
gram will  see  in  the  outline f  possibilities  which  are  not  indicated  in 
detail.  This  has  been  done  purposely,  for  a  program  to  be  effective 
must  be  made  up  of  local  up-to-date  matter.  The  related  subjects 
briefly  indicated  are: 


t  In  this  outline  of  related  subject  matter  it  is  assumed  that  all  pupils  have 
entered  the  vocational  school  equipped  with  an  elementary  education  and  that 
they  will  readily  apply  these  abilities  to  the  related  and  general  vocational  subjects. 
Where  this  training  and  ability  are  lacking  and  elementary  school  subjects  are 
introduced  into  the  course  for  the  purpose  of  making  up  deficiencies  it  should  be  so 
noted  and  these  courses  should  not  be  confused  with  the  vocational  courses.  It  is 
also  assumed  that  home-making  courses  which  are  sometimes  included  in  the  voca- 
tional trade  course  as  general  educational  subject  matter  have  been  given  in  the 
elementary  school.  The  scheme  outlined  here  is  for  a  strictly  vocational  school. 
See  Report  on  Vocational  Terminology.  Bulletin  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 

104 


1.  Arithmetical  computations  applied  to  the  problems  of  the  work 
room.     These  include  the  use  of  the  fundamental  processes,  involving 
numbers  of  four  or  five  places,  decimals  to  thousandths,  and  fractions 
of  one  and  two  figures  in  the  denominator. 

a.  These  principles  are  applied  in  linear  and  square  measure 
in  inches  and  fractions  of  inches  in  the  sewing  operations.     For 
example,  seams  are  made  an  eighth,  a  quarter,  three-eighths, 
or  a  half  inch  deep.     Hems  are  made  from  an  eighth  or  a  quar- 
ter to  three  or  four  inches  in  depth  with  the  varying  depths 
between  these  measures.     Seams  are  eighteen  inches,  forty  inches, 
more  or  less  in  length,  not  a  half  yard,  or  a  yard  and  one-eighth. 
Similar   applications   apply   to   square   measure.     The   sample 
workers  who  plan  and  make  sample  or  model  garments,  and 
designers  and  cutters  use  yards  and  fractions  of  yards  as  well 
as  the  lesser  measurements  in  making  estimates  and  figuring 
yardage.     Judgment  with  regard  to  the  accuracy  of  measure- 
ments and  the  ability  to  estimate  the  smaller  measures  accurately 
without  a  tape  measure  or  gauge  should  be   made  an  impor- 
ant  practical  application  of  this  part  of  the  arithmetical  work. 

b.  These  principles  are  also  applied  in  the  computation  of 
piece  rates  which  are  frequently  expressed  in  fractions  of  cents 
and  in  some  instances  in  decimals  to  a  tenth  of  a  cent,  and  in 
dozens  and  fractions  of  dozens.     These  computations  are  not 
required  as  a  part  of  the  occupation  except  as  the  worker  uses 
them  to  check  up  her  work  and  account  for  the  amount  of 
money  in  her  envelope.     It  is  a  part  of  her  working  knowledge 
which  she  uses  in  her  part  of  the  business  relationship  of  paid 
employee. 

c.  These  principles  are  also  applied  to  the  making  of  estimates 
for  lots  of  garments,  and  in  figuring  yardage.     This,  however, 
is  work  for  a  very  few  of  the  workers  in  the  industry  and  only 
for  those  having  ability  to  deal  with  the  more  abstract  aspects 
of  the  work  room  practice. 

d.  Exercises  in  arithmetic  should  be  correlated  with  the  work 
room  problems.     Costs,  quantities  of  materials,  time  estimates, 
value  of  labor,  and  the  like  may  be  drawn  from  the  regular  work 
room  practice  from  day  to  day  and  from  business  establishments. 
To  these  essential  work  room  calculations  may  be  added  dis- 
cussion of  and  some  exercise  in  savings,  club  or  lodge  dues,  and 
the  budget.     Advanced  pupils  in  these  courses  should  know 
how  to  read  and  understand  the  specifications  for  garments 
and  understand  how  to  figure  yardage. 

2.  Art  as  applied  to  garment  making.     It  is  doubtful  if  the  average 
worker  in  the  garment  industries  has  opportunity  to  apply  art  prin- 
ciples in  executing  the  various  tasks  that  make  up  the  series  of  opera- 
tions in  the  making  of  a  garment.     For  the  designer,  however,  princi- 
ples of  art  including  line,  color,  and  color  harmony  are  essential.     Such 
art  training  as  may  be  given  to  garment  workers  in  this  course  will 
function  as  general  vocational  information  rather  than  related  tech- 
nical knowledge.     A  few  pupils  may  show  an  interest  in  and  a  talent 
for  garment  design.     These  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  make  the 
most  of  their  talent,  and  special  courses  should  be  planned  for  them 

105 


where  numbers  justify  the  expenditure  of  time  and  money.  It  is 
essential  that  art  instruction  for  garment  workers  should  be  taught  by 
a  teacher  who  understands  factory  garment  making  so  that  designs 
and  lines  in  the  garments  will  be  practical  from  the  machine  sewing 
standpoint.  There  are  fundamental  differences  between  these  indus- 
tries and  custom  dressmaking,  for  example,  which  the  teacher  of  art 
needs  to  understand. 

3.  Textile  study  for  garment  workers  is  closely  related  to  construc- 
tion of  garments  which  involves  methods  of  handling  the  fabrics  to 
secure  desired  results.     Textures,  weaves,  qualities,  costs,  and  widths 
of  the  fabrics  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  types  of  clothing  made 

n  Cincinnati  should  be  included  in  this  study.  Instruction  should 
begin  with  fabrics  in  use,  their  qualities,  widths,  prices,  shrinking, 
fading,  adulterations.  The  instruction  should  be  correlated  with 
work  room  practice  so  as  to  make  the  textile  study  a  definite  part  of 
the  trade  work.  Methods  of  manufacturing  cloth  and  other  technical 
aspects  of  textile  study  should  follow  and  not  precede  these  more  prac- 
tical aspects  of  the  subject. 

4.  Business  English  such  as  the  girl  needs  in  making  application  for 
a  position  in  person  and  in  writing,  in  discussing  her  work  with  the 
forewoman,   and  in  reporting  her  work,  is  essential.     An  important 
item  in  all  work  room  practice  is  the  ability  to  read,  understand,  and 
carry  out  written  directions.     It  is  equally  important  to  understand, 
remember,  and  carry  out  verbal  directions.     Ability  to  take  directions 
which  involve  two,  three,  or  more  factors  is  valuable  for  persons  who 
work   under   supervision.       The   person   who   can    comprehend    and 
execute  but  one  direction  at  a  time  has  much  less  value  as  a  worker  than 
the  one  who  can  comprehend  and  execute  a  number  of  directions  suc- 
cessfully.    Exercises  of  this  kind  may  be  made  thoroughly  practical 
and  develop  a  definitely  useful  quality  in  the  prospective  worker. 

5.  Spelling  is  also  important.     Since  many  of  the  terms  used  in  the 
trade  are  likely  to  be  unfamiliar  to  the  beginner,  a  trade  vocabulary 
which  includes  names,  terms,  and  descriptive  phrases  should  be  learned. 
Like  all  other  related  subjects  this  work  should  be  correlated  with 
work  room  practice  so  that  the  meanings  and  uses  of  the  words  may  be 
fully  understood. 

General  Vocational  Subjects  That  May  Be  Included. 

General  vocational  knowledge  includes  knowledge  of  subjects  that 
function  in  the  work  room  experience  but  do  not  directly  affect  the 
work  on  the  product.  Among  the  subjects  that  may  be  included  under 
this  head  are: 

1.  The  hygiene  of  the  trade.     Habits  of  posture  for  the  person  who 
sits  at  her  work,  care  of  the  eyes,  care  in  the  use  of  the  machine  to 
avoid  accident  are  important  items  for  all  workers.     Instruction  in 
personal  hygiene  is  frequently  necessary  also.     Exercises  which  help 
to  counteract  bad  posture  which  results  from  remaining  in  one  posi- 
tion should  also  be  introduced.     Eyes  should  be  examined.     Serious 
tendencies  in  posture  and  in  eyesight   should   disqualify  prospective 
workers. 

2.  The  history  of  the  industry  and  elementary  industrial  history  give 
a  social  background  for  the  work  which  is  helpful  and  stimulating  to 

106 


many  workers.  This  report  gives  considerable  of  the  history  of  the 
trade  in  Cincinnati  and  indicates  sources  of  information.  Govern- 
ment reports  furnish  other  sources  of  information  about  the  garment 
industries.  General  industrial  history  may  also  furnish  much  perti- 
nent material  if  it  is  selected  and  interpreted  from  the  social  standpoint 
rather  than  chronologically. 

3.  Civics   and  citizenship.     The  labor  laws  under  which  garment 
workers  are  employed,  hours  of  labor,  business  and  industrial  relation- 
ships as  they  affect  the  workers  and  the  employers,  employers'  liabil- 
ity, employees'  insurance,  factory  regulations  with  regard  to  fire  exits, 
regular  exits,  lunchrooms,  dressing  rooms,  child  labor  laws  of  the  State, 
national    child   labor    legislation,    what    citizenship    means,    women's 
citizenship  duties,  and  business  ethics,  form  the  main  topics  for  this 
course.     These  should  be  presented  with  the  existing  codes  for  the 
city,  the  State,  and  the  nation  (if  any  are  national)  as  a  basis.     Dis- 
cussion   rather    than    formal    instruction   should   be   the   method    of 
developing  an  interest  in  and  intelligence  about  these  vital  topics. 

4.  Art  applied  to  the  problems  of  the  garment  industries  may  be 
included  in  this  phase  of  instruction.     When  made  a  part  of  the  course, 
art  instruction  should  be  correlated  with  the  work  room  practice  so 
as  to  make  it  function  in  the  trade  work  as  far  as  possible. 

5.  General  business  arithmetic  such  as  is  needed  in  ordinary  business 
affairs  may  be  included  here  as  a  general  vocational  subject. 

6.  Laboratory  study  of  textiles  may  also  be  included  with  the  general 
vocational  subjects.     The  extent  to  which  this  instruction  may  be  of 
value  should  be  determined  by  the  response  of  the  pupils.     It  frequently 
fails  to  show  results  when  given  to  immature  pupils  who  lack  the  nec- 
essary back  ground. 

In  all  these  general  vocational  courses  there  may  be  some  over- 
lapping with  the  related  subject  matter,  and  clear  cut  plans  may  be 
difficult  to  formulate.  The  distinction  should  be  borne  in  mind  and 
pointed  out  by  careful  designations  wherever  it  is  necessary  to  make 
distinctions  clear.  This  plan  will  make  for  good  instruction  on  the 
part  of  the  teachers  and  clear  thinking  on  the  part  of  pupils. 

Some  Suggestions  About  Methods  of  Teaching  in  the 
Vocational  School. 

Methods  of  teaching  in  a  vocational  school  differ  from  those  used  in 
the  elementary  and  secondary  schools  in  so  far  as  subjects  and  practice 
differ.  The  principles  of  vocational  pedagogy  have  not  yet  been  worked 
out  sufficiently  to  be  standardized.  It  rests  with  future  practice 
and  careful,  unbiased  study  to  evolve  acceptable  and  flexible  methods 
of  teaching  vocational  subjects.  They  must  be  as  good  as  those  used 
in  the  trade,  as  flexible  as  the  changes  which  the  evolution  of  trade 
indicates,  and  as  consistent  with  the  best  educational  interests  of  the 
pupils  as  can  be  attained.  To  attempt  merely  to  reconcile  the  present 
pedagogical  methods  of  the  regular  schools  to  vocational  instruction 
would  defeat  the  purpose  of  the  vocational  school  and  put  into  dis- 
repute methods  which  are  valuable  in  the  graded  and  high  schools. 
The  interest,  ability,  and  inclination  of  the  pupils  are  the  points  of 
departure,  and  the  demands  of  the  vocation  are  the  goal.  It  is  possible 

107 


to  combine  these  so  as  not  to  mould  the  pupils  to  meet  the  demands 
of  industry  blindly,  but  to  make  the  industry  serve  in  the  training  of 
the  future  worker* in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them  partners  in  work 
and  not  mere  slaves  to  machines. 

The  following  paragraphs  give  suggestions  which  are  the  result 
of  a  number  of  years'  experience  in  teaching,  in  observation  in  voca- 
tional schools,  and  close  study  of  the  best  factory  methods  and  prac- 
tice. They  are  not  complete.  The  subject  would  require  much  more 
time  and  much  more  space  than  can  be  given  in  this  report,  and  a  great 
deal  more  information  about  industry  than  is  available  at  this  time. 

Subject  matter  for  the  courses  given  in  a  vocational  school  must 
be  drawn  largely  from  work  room  practice.  In  so  far  as  books  may  be 
used  as  references  and  to  suggest  how  to  select  and  to  find  subject 
matter,  and  to  assist  in  formulating  methods,  they  are  valuable.  If 
used  as  textbooks  are  ordinarily  used,  for  regular  assignments  with 
the  text  as  the  basis  of  the  course,  they  are  likely  to  prove  a  hindrance 
rather  than  a  help.  The  most  satisfactory  way  to  plan  the  courses 
and  the  daily  lesson  is  to  secure  the  main  part  of  the  data  from  the 
work  room  problems  and  relate  subject  matter  to  them.  Carefully 
planned  courses  may  be  related  to  each  other  so  as  to  take  care  of  the 
continuity  and  general  purpose  of  the  courses  which  will  prevent  super- 
ficial instruction  and  careless  selection  of  problems.  Pupils  frequently 
report  their  problems  and  seek  for  ways  of  solving  them,  but  the  teacher 
of  related  subjects  will  find  it  necessary  to  make  frequent  visits  to  the 
work  rooms  to  secure  problems  and  to  follow  up  the  application  of 
class  room  instruction  with  individual  pupils.  In  like  manner  the  trade 
teacher  may  visit  the  class  room  during  recitations  to  find  out  what 
practical  applications  to  the  work  room  problems  are  being  made. 
A  half  hour  a  day  spent  regularly  in  study  in  the  work  rooms  will 
net  a  large  amount  of  subject  matter  for  the  teacher  provided  she 
understands  and  values  what  she  observes. 

Related  subject  matter  should  be  taught  from  the  point  of  view  of 
work  room  practice.  As  far  as  possible  the  tools,  materials,  and  methods 
used  in  the  class  room  should  conform  to  those  used  in  the  trade.  For 
example,  the  tape  measure  js  the  instrument  for  making  measurements 
in  sewing.  To  attempt  to  teach  measurements  in  the  related  sub- 
jects by  use  of  the  ruler  is  wasteful  of  the  pupils'  time  and  effort,  for, 
although  the  results  are  the  same  in  each,  the  use  of  the  tools  is  very 
different,  and  both  physical  and  mental  readjustments  are  necessary 
when  applications  are  to  be  made. 

The  teacher  is  frequently  tempted  to  formalize  the  subject  matter 
for  the  purpose  of  making  it  uniform,  to  take  short  cuts  so  as  to  save 
time,  and  to  use  formal  "sets"  of  illustrative  material.  Where  these 
limitations  are  made  the  instruction  quickly  lapses  into  the  ordinary 
class  room  procedure  and  fails  to  interest  the  pupils  who  are  quick  to 
detect  the  difference  between  real  problems  and  those  which  are  merely 
cloaked  in  work  room  language.  Since  their  interest  is  in  the  concrete 
rather  than  in  abstract  subject  matter,  the  results  of  teaching  are 
materially  lessened. 

General  vocational  subjects  should  also  be  taught  with  reference  to 
the  pupils'  interest  and  their  future  vocations.  At  first  thought  this 
may  seem  to  be  narrow  and  to  have  a  tendency  to  hedge  the  pupils 

108 


into  an  over-specialized  course.  This  result  will  not  follow  if  the  teacher 
keeps  in  mind  that  all  instruction  to  function  in  learning  and  in  use 
for  the  pupils  must  begin  with  the  pupils'  interests  and  abilitites.  For 
example,  industrial  history  for  some  pupils  may  begin  with  the  modern 
sewing  machine  as  the  immediate  point  of  interest  and  travel  back 
over  the  inventions  and  changes  that  the  years  have  brought  and  so 
out  into  other  phases  of  industrial  history  and  the  history  of  the  trade 
they  are  studying.  It  is  fairly  safe  to  say  that  pupils  who  become 
interested  in  industrial  history  by  this  approach  would  probably  not 
see  any  reality  in  it  if  presented  chronologically. 

The  teacher  who  is  a  student  of  the  subjects  she  is  teaching  will 
find  phases  of  the  work  that  are  not  discussed  in  the  foregoing  para- 
graphs. To  cover  them  completely  would  mean  a  thoroughly  stand- 
ardized industry,  which  the  garment  making  industries  are  not,  though 
they  are  approaching  standardization,  and  a  thorough  understanding 
of  the  underlying  principles  and  theory  of  teaching  in  vocational 
schools,  which  the  advocates  of  vocational  education  do  not  have  at 
the  present  time,  though  they  are  working  earnestly  and  thought- 
fully toward  that  end. 

Co-operation  of  teachers  is  a  very  essential  factor  in  instruction 
which  seeks  to  relate  courses  closely.  It  means  a  willingness  on 
the  part  of  each  teacher  to  make  her  subject  clear  to  the  other,  and  it 
frequently  means  a  careful  working  out  of  the  main  theories  of  each 
so  that  they  agree.  For  example,  the  trade  teacher  gives  as  part  of 
her  course  the  making  of  tucks,  the  teacher  of  arithmetic  teaches  how 
to  compute  the  amount  of  material  required  for  tucks;  and  the  teacher 
of  art  teaches  space  regulations  for  tucks  and  how  to  use  tucks  for 
decoration.  Without  co-operation  in  such  matters  there  could  well  be 
unnecessary  overlapping  of  instruction  and  serious  differences  in 
underlying  theories.  There  are  few  subjects  taught  in  the  vocational 
school  which  do  not  offer  some  common  meeting  ground.  This  report* 
cannot  enter  deeply  into  discussion  of  these  points,  but  it  does  wish 
to  indicate  with  some  emphasis  the  necessity  for  the  discussion  of 
common  problems  among  teachers  in  the  vocational  school  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  desirable  co-operation  an  accepted  practice. 

The  manufacturers  in  Cincinnati  have  indicated  a  willingness  to  co- 
operate with  the  schools  by  allowing  some  of  their  expert  foremen  and 
forewomen  to  assist  in  getting  instruction  along  special  lines  started 
in  the  school  and  to  allow  the  vocational  teachers  to  visit  the  factories 
for  the  purpose  of  learning  new  methods  and  checking  up  the  old 
ones.  Hence  there  should  be  little  difficulty  in  planning  courses  for 
the  several  groups  into  which  the  pupils  will  gradually  be  divided. 
The  study  of  aptitudes  and  abilities  must  ever  be  a  part  of  the  teachers' 
work  if  the  vocational  school  is  to  avoid  the  fallacy  of  thinking  that 
all  pupils  are  alike  and  may  be  trained  in  the  same  way  and  by  some 
saving  grace  make  the  necessary  adjustments  to  social  and  to  working 
conditions  when  they  leave  the  school. 

The  Program. 

Work  room  practice  and  instruction.  Three  hours  daily  (one- 
half  of  the  school  day)  in  work  room  practice  uninterrupted  by 
instruction  in  related  or  general  subjects  is  essential  to  establish  the  nec- 

109 


essary  habits  of  work  and  a  thoughtful  attitude  toward  work.  Flit- 
ting' from  one  thing  to  another  tends  toward  divided  attention  with 
resulting  low  standards  of  work  and  thoughtful  study.  Necessary 
variation  may  be  introduced  in  the  work  which  will  counteract  tend- 
encies toward  fatigue  or  flagging  interest.  Experience  indicates  that 
interest  is  greater  where  the  one  longer  period  of  work  is  used  than  it 
is  where  a  number  of  short  periods  make  up  the  day's  work. 

Instruction  in  related  subjects  and  general  vocational  subjects. 
Three  hours  daily  (one-half  of  the  school  day)  may  be  used  for  this 
part  of  the  school  work.  Instruction  in  these  subjects  may  alternate 
by  class  periods  of  forty-five  minutes  each  or  alternate  by  days.  Short 
intensive  courses  given  daily  for  a  stated  period  may  also  be  given. 
The  intensive  course  has  some  advantages  over  the  longer  course  in 
some  subjects.  Arithmetic  related  to  work  room  practice  may  be 
given  in  this  way.  Certain  phases  of  business  English  may  also  be 
presented  in  a  short  course.  Other  courses  may  be  planned  in  a  simi- 
lar way  and  alternated  by  terms  or  quarter  terms.  It  has  been  found 
in  some  instances  that  some  subjects  presented  in  short,  intensive 
courses  secure  a  better  response  and  more  effective  attention  from  the 
pupils  and  thus  yield  larger  returns  in  information  and  in  learning 
ability  than  the  longer  courses  in  which  relationships  between  topics 
and  between  subjects  are  less  sharply  defined.  The  method  used 
may  be  determined  by  work  room  practice  and  the  extent  to  which 
subjects  need  to  be  correlated  with  it.  Prolonging  courses  for  the  pur- 
pose of  filling  up  the  program  should  be  sedulously  avoided. 

A  probationary  period  of  one  or  two  months  for  all  pupils  should 
precede  permanent  admission  to  the  vocational  school.  The  pupils 
should  be  made  to  understand  the  purpose  of  the  probationary  period 
so  as  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  time.  During  the  period  a  round  of 
practical  work  should  be  provided  that  will  give  the  pupils  an  oppor- 
tunity to  make  the  necessary  physical  and  mental  adjustments  which 
the  new  environment  requires  and  to  get  a  point  of  view — a  mental 
set  or  attitude — toward  the  work. 

Work  room  instruction  during  this  period  should  include: 

1.  Instruction  in  the  use  and  control  of  the  power  driven  sewing 
machine.     How  to  start  it,  how  to  stop  it,  and  how  to  control  its  speed. 

2.  How  to  thread  the  head  of  the  machine,  and  to  wind  and  thread 
the  bobbin. 

3.  How  to  guide  straight  work  in  the  machine. 

4.  Beginning  instruction  in  simple  processes  such  as  the  plain  seam, 
straight  hems  of  varying  widths  applied  to  simple  garments  of  inexpen- 
sive ,   firm,   and  medium  weight  fabrics.      Variety  may  be  introduced 
in  this  work  through  the  use  of  different  kinds  and  colors  of  fabric. 
Sleazy  and  thick  fabrics  should  be  avoided  during  this  trying-out  period. 

The  probationary  period  need  not  necessarily  be  a  fixed  period. 
Pupils  who  can  qualify  readily  should  be  allowed  to  proceed  to  the 
regular  work  as  soon  as  the  requirements  have  been  met.  The  maxi- 
mum allowance  of  time  for  probationary  work  should  be  of  sufficient 
length,  however,  to  allow  those  who  work  less  rapidly  than  others  to 
complete  the  probationary  work  satisfactorily.  Pupils  who  cannot 
demonstrate  ability  to  undertake  some  of  the  garment  making  work 
in  two  months  will,  with  rare  exceptions,  show  tendencies  which 
indicate  that  the  work  is  not  suited  to  them. 

110 


The  probationary  period  should  disclose  some  inabilities  as  well  as 
abilities.  In  the  use  of  the  power  sewing  machine  signs  of  nervousness 
and  fear,  if  persistent,  should  disqualify  that  person  for  the  work. 
Tendencies  toward  lack  of  muscular  control  in  managing  the  work 
may  also  be  detected.  Deficiencies  in  sight  adjustments,  though  the 
eyes  may  have  been  tested  by  the  ordinary  methods,  may  also  be 
discovered.  The  use  of  the  power  sewing  machine  does  not  require  a 
fixation  of  the  eyes  upon  the  needle  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  but 
grosser  visual  adjustments  are  sometimes  difficult  for  certain  pupils. 
Ability  to  learn  how  to  use  a  power  sewing  machine  should  show  itself 
in  this  period.  Probable  interest  in  and  an  ability  to  do  garment  work 
should  also  begin  to  show  itself.  There  should  also  be  some  indication 
of  the  probable  extent  to  which  the  pupils'  ability  to  give  intelligent 
thought  to  the  work  and  to  other  school  subjects  may  be  aroused  and 
developed  by  the  concrete  tasks  of  the  work  room  and  the  related 
subject  matter  made  practical  through  its  applications  to  real  problems. 
This  shifting  period  should  give  both  pupils  and  teachers  a  basis  for 
the  work  of  the  vocational  course. 

The  regular  vocational  course  should  seek  definitely  (1)  to  teach 
methods  for  the  processes  used  and  their  application  to  the  garment, 
(2)  to  develop  ability  in  garment  construction,  and  when  this  ability 
is  lacking,  to  substitute  training  in  special  operations  or  finishing 
operations  for  which  there  is  demand.  To  this  end  the  garments  made 
should  be  selected  with  care  and  with  reference  to  their  usefulness  and 
marketable  possibilities  as  well  as  for  the  types  of  processes  and  the 
amount  of  construction  involved. 

A  method  must  be  followed  in  planning  the  practical  course  so  that 
it  will  not  become  merely  a  series  of  garments  unrelated  as  to  under- 
lying principles  of  garment  making  and  sequence  in  practice.  It  is 
suggested  that  some  such  method  as  the  following  be  used:  first,  se- 
select  the  garments  to  be  made  with  reference  to  processes  to  be  taught 
and  the  garment  construction  to  be  used;  second,  determine  the  pro- 
cesses to  be  used;  third,  note  the  reasons  for  using  the  processes 
selected;  fourth,  state  briefly  the  methods  for  presenting  the  work. 
Successive  garments  in  the  list  will  require  an  additional  item,  namely, 
the  processes  and  construction  repeated  and  reasons  for  the  repetition, 
including  note  of  new  factors  that  may  occur  in  applying  them  to 
another  garment. 

This  relationship  of  work  and  product  should  be  followed  through- 
out with  the  mere  doing  of  single  processes  giving  way  to  the  larger 
phases  of  garment  construction  as  skill  and  capacity  for  independent 
work  are  gained  by  the  pupils.  Such  careful  working  out  of  the 
details  of  the  practical  work  will  tend  to  make  the  development  of  the 
pupils  the  objective  rather  than  the  finished  product.  With  some  stand- 
ards for  judging,  the  educational  value  of  any  type  of  product,  whether 
for  commercial  or  personal  use,  will  serve  as  a  check  upon  the  selection 
of  work  throughout  the  course. 

Details  as  to  the  arrangement  of  the  courses  in  the  related  trade 
and  technical  subjects  and  in  the  general  vocational  subjects  have  been 
noted  briefly.  When  the  half-and-half  plan  is  used  the  matter  of 
arranging  these  courses  becomes  a  question  of  making  the  schedule. 

Ill 


Arrangement  depends,  therefore,  upon  the  extent  to  which  long  courses 
or  short  courses  are  to  be  used  and  whether  the  alternating  or  daily 
plan  of  recitation  is  to  be  used. 

The  course  in  the  Cincinnati  School,  as  has  already  been  pointed 
out,  must  make  provisions  for  instruction  for  a  variety  of  the  garment 
industries.  Cotton  house  dresses  for  women  and  children,  shirts,  over- 
alls, neckwear,  women's  dresses,  suits,  and  coats,  hats  and  caps,  and  a 
variety  of  men's  and  boys'  clothing  are  among  the  chief  branches  of 
the  industry  which  will  look  to  the  school  for  trained  workers.  These 
types  of  work  can  be  run  in  succession  to  some  extent,  but  the  school 
will  doubtless  find  it  advantageous  to  run  several  of  them  parallel  to 
each  other. 

Courses  may  begin  with  cotton  fabrics,  but  in  a  city  where  the  manu- 
facture of  clothing  forms  an  important  branch  of  the  industry  in  which 
the  workers  will  be  employed,  work  on  woolen  fabrics  should  be 
introduced  early  in  the  course  so  that  there  may  be  time  to  acquire  the 
necessary  skill  in  working  with  the  heavier  fabrics.  Hats  and  caps 
are  small  and  may  be  handled  readily  by  inexperienced  workers.  The 
construction  is,  of  course,  different  from  that  of  a  coat  or  a  vest,  but 
the  fabrics  are  the  same  and  similar  processes  are  used  to  some  extent, 
so  that  knowledge  of  woolen  and  worsted  fabrics  may  be  gained  and 
ability  to  handle  them  may  be  acquired  in  this  work,  and  to  some 
extent  this  knowledge  may  be  applied  in  the  clothing  work. 

House  dresses,  aprons,  kimonos,  and  plain  underwear  may  pre- 
cede instruction  in  making  shirts  which  require  very  accurate  work. 
Neckwear  may  be  introduced  as  a  special  type  of  work  for  those  pupils 
who  show  ability  to  handle  the  finer  fabrics  successfully. 

The  regular  vocational  course  should  discover  and  develop  the 
abilities  of  the  pupils  along  the  lines  of  work  for  which  they  are  best 
suited.  Some  pupils  will  show  a  wider  range  of  ability  than  others. 
These  may  be  trained  to  do  a  group  of  operations,  but  for  one,  not  all, 
of  the  garment  industries.  Other  pupils  will  show  little  range  of  abil- 
ity. These  may  be  trained  for  more  specialized  work  such  as  button- 
hole making,  button  sewing,  tacking,  hem-stitching  or  straw  hat  sew- 
ing. The  workers  who  show  ability  in  handling  cotton  goods  and  in 
doing  accurate  work  may  be  trained  to  be  shirt  makers  or  workers  on 
cotton  waists  and  dresses.  Those  who  show  ability  to  handle 
woolen  fabrics  successfully  may  be  taught  to  make  caps  and  hats  if 
small  work  is  preferred,  or  they  may  be  taught  to  make  the  parts  of 
coats,  or  vests,  or  trousers.  Those  who  show  the  ability  to  handle 
silk  fabrics  may  be  trained  to  make  silk  shirts  or  men's  cravats,  or 
work  on  silk  dresses  and  waists  for  which  there  is  some  opportunity 
in  Cincinnati.  Pupils  who  prefer  less  exacting  and  fine  work  may  be 
taught  to  make  overalls  and  working  jackets.  In  every  instance  men  - 
tioned  above  with  the  exception  of  the  specialized  processes  which  are 
done  on  machines  built  for  one  operation  only,  pupils  may  be  trained 
for  one  operation  or  a  number  of  operations.  Where  a  group  of 
operations  center  about  the  making  of  one  part  of  a  garment  and  one 
machine  the  group  of  operations  should  be  taught.  These  factors  change 
from  year  to  year,  and  they  differ  somewhat  in  the  various  factories. 

119 


Desirable  grouping  of  operations,  especially  in  the  types  of  work  such 
as  coat  making  which  is  always  carried  on  by  a  group  of  people 
who  are  specialists  in  the  making  of  parts,  may  be  ascertained  as  the 
course  is  developed. 

A  certificate  for  work  completed  satisfactorily  should  be  granted. 
Completion  of  the  school  and  six  months'  satisfactory  service  as  an 
employee  in  the  occupation  for  which  preparation  has  been  given  should 
constitute  the  qualification  for  certification.*  When  shorter  courses 
than  the  regular  two-year  course  are  given  special  certification  should 
be  devised  to  meet  their  requirements.  The  school's  responsibility 
for  the  pupils  after  they  have  become  employed  workers  is  being  worked 
out  in  Cincinnati  by  approved  methods.  The  work  of  the  Placement 
office  of  the  Vocational  Bureau  and  its  relation  to  the  Public  School 
system  is  discussed  in  Chapter  VIII  of  this  report. 

Training  such  as  this  study  recommends  should  enable  the  workers 
to  enter  one  of  the  various  branches  of  the  garment  industry  of  the  city 
considerably  in  advance  of  the  untrained  workers.  With  the  interest 
and  co-operation  of  the  manufacturers  of  the  city  assured  this  result 
seems  certain.  That  these  workers  will  be  able  to  give  more  intelli- 
gent interest  and  attention  to  their  work  and  greater  skill  and  efficiency 
in  workmanship  is  certain.  It  is  not  to  be  expected,  however,  that 
workers  of  eighteen  years  or  younger  may  take  positions  of  larger 
responsibility  when  they  enter  the  workrooms,  but  a  number  of  them, 
native  abilities  being  good,  will  have  the  type  of  initiative  and  the 
qualifications  which  make  advancement  possible.  With  abilities 
realized  it  is  possible  for  these  pupils  to  develop  the  understanding 
vision  which  is  necessary  for  advancement  to  the  larger  responsibility 
of  the  higher  positions  as  opportunity,  experience,  and  maturity  make 
it  possible. 

Skill  and  good  workmanship,  important  as  they  are  in  the  vocational 
program,  do  not  constitute  the  only  objective  of  the  school.  The 
larger  educational  and  social  values  of  education  which  function  in 
good  citizenship,  social  ideals,  and  intelligent  use  of  leisure  must  be 
present  throughout  the  course.  The  concrete  material  from  which 
these  values  may  be  developed  may  be  found  in  every  subject  and 
every  situation  included  in  the  course.  The  extent  to  which  they  may 
be  discovered  and  used  lies  with  the  teacher.  The  success  of  the  school 
in  this  broad  social  sense  may  be  safely  forecast  as  being  commensurate 
with  the  extent  to  which  vocational  aims  and  the  responsibility  to  be 
assumed  in  the  vocation  are  made  the  honest  and  frank  objective  of 
the  course. 


*  See  Recommendations  14,  Chapter  I,  page  17. 


113 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

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